Vastavalt nimekirjale 07.04.2025 nr 6-3/25/1590-2
Rootsi mereala ruumilise planeeringu ning
mõjuhindamise aruande täiendused
Rootsi on keskkonnamõju konventsiooni (Espoo konventsiooni) keskkonnamõju strateegilise
hindamise (KSH) protokolli alusel teavitanud Eestit Rootsi mereala ruumilise planeeringu eelnõu
ja mõjuhindamise (sh KSH) aruande täiendamisest vastavalt piiriüleste konsultatsioonide käigus
laekunud ettepanekutele. Samuti on materjale korrigeeritud seoses Rootsi valitsuse 04.11.2024
otsusega jätta tegevusload andmata 13 Rootsi meretuulepargi projektile. Eelnevalt oleme Teie
seisukohti antud planeeringu ja mõjuhindamise aruande kohta küsinud 19.12.20231. Rootsi
Valitsuse 04.11.2024 otsusest teavitasime Teid 29.11.20242.
Kirjale on lisatud Rootsi mereala ruumilise planeeringu eelnõu ning selle mõjuhindamise aruanne
(tõlgitud inglise keelde). Arvestades Rootsi määratud vastamistähtaega, ootame hiljemalt
02.05.2025 põhjendatud arvamusi ja ettepanekuid edastatud materjalide kohta.
Lugupidamisega
(allkirjastatud digitaalselt)
Antti Tooming
elurikkuse ja keskkonnakaitse asekantsler
Lisad: mereala ruumilise planeeringu eelnõu ning mõjuhindamise aruanne
(ingliskeelsed versioonid)
Lilli Tamm, 626 9133
[email protected]
1
Kiri on registreeritud Kliimaministeeriumi dokumendihaldussüsteemis 19.12.2023 numbriga 6-3/23/5625-2.
2
Kiri on registreeritud Kliimaministeeriumi dokumendihaldussüsteemis 29.11.2024 numbriga 6-3/24/5444-2.
Suur-Ameerika 1 / Tallinn 10122 / 626 2802/
[email protected] / www.kliimaministeerium.ee/
Registrikood 70001231
Impact assessment of the proposals for
amended marine spatial plans for the Gulf of
Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat
Final version (ref. 00764–2022)
2025-01-20
Impact assessment of proposals for amended
marine spatial plans for the Gulf of Bothnia, the
Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat
Final version (ref. 00764-2022)
This report has been produced by the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management.
The Agency is responsible for the content and conclusions of the report.
© SWEDISH AGECY FOR MARINE AND WATER MANAGEMENT | Date: 2025-01-20
Cover image: Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management
Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management | Box 11 930 | 404 39 Gothenburg | https://www.havochvatten.se/en
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Preface
On 10 February 2022, the Government adopted Sweden’s first marine spatial plans for the Gulf of
Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat. The marine spatial plans are the state's
comprehensive guidance to state authorities, regions and municipalities when planning and
examining claims for the use of areas in the sea. The considerations in the marine spatial plans
are strategic and long-term. In connection with the decision on the marine spatial plans in 2022,
the Government also decided on a new assignment focusing on new areas for energy extraction
in the marine spatial plans. This is to enable offshore energy extraction with an additional 90
terawatt hours of annual electricity production in addition to the areas included in the agreed
marine spatial plans (M2022/00276).
The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management has drawn up proposals for amended
marine spatial plans for the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat, together with
an impact assessment, through broad dialogue and collaboration with many different
stakeholders. Marine spatial planning is an important tool for achieving long-term sustainable
development and management in Sweden's marine areas.
The function of the impact assessment is to provide a broad picture of the potential effects and
consequences of the plan proposal, with an emphasis on effects from offshore wind power. The
impact assessment complies with the standard for the environmental impact assessment required
within the framework of strategic environmental assessment pursuant to Chapter 6, Sections 1–
19 of the Environmental Code.
Two formal dialogues have been carried out, consultations in autumn 2023 and a review in
spring-summer 2024. In addition to the national consultation, the Swedish Agency for Marine and
Water Management has also held an international Espoo consultation through the Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency to gather the views of neighbouring countries. Comments have
formed the basis for the development of both the plan proposal and the impact assessment.
Gothenburg, January 2025
Anna Ledin
Director-General, Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management
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Summary
The impact assessment describes the impact of the proposed marine spatial plan on
environmental, social and economic aspects linked to the state of the sea, maritime industries
and marine interests. The assessments are carried out at an overall level in accordance with the
Environmental Code’s rules on strategic environmental assessment. The focus is on assessing
direct and indirect effects and impacts in the short and long term linked to the plan’s guidance on
the most suitable use and particular consideration. Assessments are made for each marine
spatial plan; the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat. An overall assessment is
also carried out jointly for the three marine spatial planning areas and an assessment of the
significance of the plan in relation to relevant plans, programmes and strategies.
In the impact assessment, there is a strong focus on assessing the impact from the proposed
energy areas. New proposals for energy areas are the main difference from the agreed marine
spatial plans. It is also the focus of the government assignment from 2022 to expand the area for
offshore energy production in order to achieve an objective of enabling an annual electricity
production of 120 TWh in the territorial sea and exclusive economic zone.
Overall assessment of the impact of offshore wind energy
Transboundary and cumulative impacts
In the territorial seas and exclusive economic zones of Sweden and neighbouring countries,
human activity is continuously increasing. Planned offshore wind power is expected to account for
a sharp increase in the short and medium term, in Sweden and in neighbouring countries.
Therefore, consideration needs to be given to the risk of cumulative effects of mainly offshore
wind power, but also other activities. The energy areas in the plan proposals can contribute to
cumulative effects in the Gulf of Bothnia and Skagerrak/Kattegat. No new energy areas are
proposed in the Baltic Sea, and therefore no new contributions to cumulative effects in the marine
spatial plan area follows.
The risk of cumulative effects is particularly high in areas with a high concentration of energy
areas where there are high nature values and ecological links of international importance, such
as migratory birds and harbour porpoises. The impact on the cultural environment and landscape
is also important in cases where energy expansion is visible from neighbouring countries'
coastlines. Cumulative effects may also occur in relation to shipping where energy expansion can
increase the risk of incidents and reduce maritime safety. When it comes to fishing, there is
extensive foreign fishing in all Swedish marine areas and offshore wind power can affect the
conditions for several fleets. Offshore wind power in Swedish sea areas can also affect other
countries' defence-related activities and vice versa. Cross-border interactions on cumulative
effects are necessary to assess cumulative impacts from a sea basin perspective.
Gulf of Bothnia
The marine spatial plan’s guidance in the Gulf of Bothnia has implications for the marine
environment and biodiversity. Ecological aspects that risk being negatively affected by proposed
energy areas include the ringed seal, which is dependent on ice in order to reproduce and rear its
pups. There are uncertainties regarding the effect of offshore wind power on the conditions for ice
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formation. The risk of impact on migrating salmon is considered to be limited if energy
establishment in shallow coastal areas is avoided. The impact on the benthic habitat is expected
to be small, as well as the impact on fish and spawning grounds. For migratory birds in particular,
the plan proposal entails potentially major negative effects in connection with proposed energy
areas at Finngrunden. Also wintering birds can be negatively affected in this area. The area for
areas with particular consideration to high nature values has been expanded in the plan proposal,
with a special focus on birds, seals and bottom habitats. This is expected to have positive effects
on the protection of biodiversity and contribute to a network of green infrastructure.
For impacts related to climate, water and air, the assessment is that the marine spatial plan
guidance has a major positive effect in that it guides increased opportunities for renewable
energy production that can replace energy types that generate greenhouse gas emissions.
However, the expansion of energy areas may mean changes in the steaming distances for
shipping and commercial fishing. The effect of increased mileage is difficult to assess on the
basis of available information. Both offshore wind energy construction and sand extraction can
lead to local impacts in the form of turbidity and dispersal of sediments, but the assessment is
that this does not affect the marine environment in the long term.
In terms of impact on landscapes, cultural environments and recreation, several energy areas risk
visually affecting national interests, world heritage sites and coastal areas with landscape
protection, such as Haparanda Archipelago, the High Coast and Hornslandet. Energy areas
within a distance of less than 35 kilometres from cultural sites have been designated ‘k’ for
particular consideration of high cultural heritage values, which indicates that particular
consideration should be given to visual impact when establishing energy in these areas.
The plan proposal for the Gulf of Bothnia has the potential to provide energy production of
approximately 130 TWh per year. The Gulf of Bothnia is expected to connect mainly to bidding
zones 1 and 2 and the supply of electricity production is needed for energy transition, primarily for
industry. Energy establishment also leads to positive indirect employment effects. However, the
proposed energy expansion affects other interests in the marine area. In the Gulf of Bothnia,
there are both Swedish and Finnish commercial fishing whose access to fishing areas can be
affected. The impact on commercial fishing is negligible in the Bothnian Bay and North Kvarken,
and medium-sized in the Southern Bothnian Sea. Indirect effects may occur in value chains
linked to the fisheries processing industry and landing ports. Shipping is affected partly by a
slightly longer mileage in the changed fairway in the Southern Bothnian Sea, and partly by the
potential impact on navigation and maritime safety of the increased presence of fixed installations
that offshore wind farms would entail. The plan indicates that safety distances should be
established when designing and permitting energy areas in order to minimise collision risks. The
potential impact on ice formation is an uncertainty factor for winter navigation in the Gulf of
Bothnia.
Baltic Sea
The plan does not provide guidance on more energy areas in the Baltic Sea than the existing or
already licensed wind farms. This means that the plan's guidance on energy extraction does not
contribute to negative effects on the natural environment, cultural environment, outdoor activities,
tourism, shipping, fish and commercial fishing in the plan area.
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At the same time, this means that a large potential for energy extraction is not exploited. A large
contribution to renewable and fossil-free energy in southern Sweden is lacking, as well as the
potential climate benefit an establishment would have provided space for. Limited guidance on
energy extraction and energy areas in the plan area is negative for the wind industry, including
wind power project companies and affected sectors. New electricity production in the Baltic Sea is
expected to connect mainly to bidding zones 3 and 4. In order to achieve this goal, Sweden's
offshore wind power must be realised with a higher concentration in other marine spatial planning
areas.
Investigation areas for shipping around Gotland as well as sand extraction areas remain from the
adopted marine spatial plan.
Skagerrak/Kattegat
The plan proposal for Skagerrak/Kattegat contains energy areas in important migratory routes for
birds and bats. This poses a high risk of negative impacts. The risk of cumulative effects is high
as several of the energy areas with projects that have received permits are assessed to have a
negative effect on birds. Realisation of the energy areas would have a cumulative negative effect
on harbour porpoises in both the northern and southern parts of Skagerrak/Kattegat. Negative
effects on the benthic habitats are considered to be limited if nature values are taken into account
in the design. A potential positive local net effect may arise if energy use replaces bottom trawling
in areas especially in Skagerrak. However, the impact on commercial fishing may mean an
intensification of fishing in adjacent accessible areas with increased pressure in them.
For impacts related to climate, water and air, the assessment is that the marine spatial plan
guidance has a great positive effect in that it guides on increased opportunities for renewable
energy production that can replace fossil fuels and also fuels in the long term, which would lead
to lower levels of air emissions. However, the expansion of energy areas may mean changes in
driving distances for commercial fishing, with the risk of some increase in emissions as a result.
The construction of offshore wind power can lead to local impacts in the form of turbidity and
dispersal of sediments, but the assessment is that this does not affect the marine environment in
the long term.
The west coast has high values from a cultural environment and recreation point of view. A large
number of areas of national interest and national interest claims for the cultural environment and
recreation can be found along the coast. The plan's proposals for energy areas, particularly in
Halland, are expected to have a major negative effect on these interests, with a risk of impact on
the tourism industry. In Skagerrak, the energy areas are located further out from the coast but, on
the other hand, include large areas in the marine area.
The marine spatial plan for Skagerrak/Kattegat guides potential energy extraction of about 20
TWh per year, which would constitute an important addition of fossil-free electricity to parts of
western Sweden. Electricity production is expected to be able to connect to bidding zones 3 and
4. The potential impact on shipping in Skagerrak/Kattegat is assessed to be relatively small, both
for Swedish and international shipping, provided that permits for the establishment of wind farms
take into account existing recommendations. The plan indicates that safety distances should be
established when designing and permitting energy areas in order to minimise collision risks.
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Energy areas were adjusted according to the planning consultation taking into account national
interest claims for commercial fishing and fishing operations. Overall, the impact on commercial
fishing of the energy areas in the marine spatial plan for Skagerrak/Kattegat is considered to have
a potential major impact on commercial fishing in the plan area, primarily in the case of the
northern shrimp fishing, as well as bottom trawling for Norway lobster and fish. This includes the
effects of areas with licensed wind farms. The impact on commercial fishing can also have
second-round effects on value chains, self-processing, the processing industry, affected landing
ports and municipal interests.
Environmental objectives and the EU Marine Strategy for the Marine Environment Directive
The marine spatial plans’ guidance is considered to make both positive and negative
contributions to Sweden’s national environmental objectives. The environmental quality objectives
where the plan has the greatest positive effect are "Limited climate impact". By creating the
conditions for an increased establishment of offshore wind power in the Swedish territorial sea
and Swedish exclusive economic zone, there is potential to replace fossil energy production and,
in the long term, fossil fuels with an alternative that does not generate greenhouse gases. The
environmental quality objectives where the plan has the greatest negative effect are Sea in
balance and living coast and archipelago, A rich plant and animal life, and Good built
environment. Offshore wind affects marine environments both during construction and the
operational phase, which risks negatively affecting ecosystems and threatening biodiversity, such
as birds and marine mammals. The landscape is also affected by offshore wind power, as well as
cultural environments and areas that are important for recreation. For the environmental quality
objectives Fresh air and Non-toxic environment, marine spatial plans have a marginal effect in
that guidance on energy use can affect local emissions, both positively and possibly negatively as
driving distances change. The marine spatial plans’ guidance on sand extraction can lead to local
impacts on the marine environment, and lead to the dispersion of pollutants from sediments.
The marine spatial plans are assessed in relation to the Swedish Marine Environment Regulation
and the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive to be able to affect the descriptors for
biodiversity (seabirds, marine mammals), alien species, seabed integrity, hydrographic conditions
and underwater noise. It is possible to limit the impact on the marine environment by introducing
conditions and consideration measures, but there are several uncertainties linked to the extensive
deployment of offshore wind power. Uncertainties include potential risks of hydrographical
changes and consequential effects, effects on ice formation, outcomes of consideration measures
and opportunities for coexistence.
Relation of the marine spatial plans to the National Strategy for Sustainable Regional
Development throughout the country 2021 – 2030 and its priorities:
Equal opportunities for housing, work and welfare throughout the country:
• High quality of life with good and attractive habitats - By guiding about areas for use
recreation and cultural environment, as well as consideration and adaptation for natural
and cultural landscapes, the marine spatial plan affects the strategy's priority related to
promoting natural and cultural landscapes, visits in nature, the right of public access and
recreation.
• Good spatial planning - Through the plan's guidance on the most appropriate use and
particular consideration, marine spatial plans contribute to a long-term and balanced
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trade-off between different societal interests. Thus, the marine spatial plans contribute to
the strategy's priority of promoting a sustainable social structure, reduced climate impact,
conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services in a changing climate, and that the
interests of defence are taken into account.
Innovation and renewal as well as entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship across the country:
• A competitive, circular and bio-based, climate and environmental sustainable economy -
The plan's guidance on energy in two of the marine spatial plans contributes to the
strategy's priority on the deployment, production and use of renewable energy that is
important for regional energy supply and sustainable regional development.
• The plan’s guidance on the use of commercial fishing contributes to the same priority by
taking into account the conditions for commercial fishing.
Accessibility throughout the country through digital communication and the transport system
• Accessibility through sustainable transport systems - The plan's guidance on shipping and
other uses contributes to the priority through maritime transport supply that is significant
for people and businesses across the country. The priority also highlights the importance
of coordination between activities and transport infrastructure at local, regional and
national level.
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Content
Impact assessment of proposals for amended marine spatial plans for the Gulf of Bothnia, the
Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat ........................................................................................... 2
Preface ............................................................................................................................................. 3
Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 4
Overall assessment of the impact of offshore wind energy ...................................................... 4
Transboundary and cumulative impacts ........................................................................... 4
Gulf of Bothnia ................................................................................................................... 4
Baltic Sea ........................................................................................................................... 5
Skagerrak/Kattegat ............................................................................................................ 6
Environmental objectives and the EU Marine Strategy for the Marine Environment
Directive ................................................................................................................. 7
Relation of the marine spatial plans to the National Strategy for Sustainable Regional
Development throughout the country 2021 – 2030 and its priorities: ................... 7
Content ............................................................................................................................................. 9
Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 15
Marine spatial planning and objectives of the marine spatial plans ................................ 15
Strategic environmental assessment of marine spatial plans ......................................... 16
Formal requirements for strategic environmental assessment of marine spatial
plans .................................................................................................................... 16
Scope of the impact assessment ........................................................................ 17
International consultation and cooperation ......................................................... 17
Current situation, zero alternative and assessment scenarios ....................................... 18
Current situation and zero alternative ................................................................. 18
The meaning and guidance of the marine spatial plans - Level of exploitation and
realisation ............................................................................................................ 20
Assessment scenarios ........................................................................................ 20
The marine spatial plans’ relation to other plans and programmes ................................ 21
National interests, policy documents and spatial planning ................................. 21
Environmental and climate objectives ................................................................. 24
Terminology and definitions............................................................................................. 27
Instructions for reading .................................................................................................... 28
Conditions and environmental effects..................................................................................... 29
Impact on population and health ..................................................................................... 29
Current situation, conditions and development ................................................... 29
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Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy .................. 29
Effects on protected animal or plant species and biodiversity ........................................ 32
Birds..................................................................................................................... 32
Bats...................................................................................................................... 34
Marine mammals ................................................................................................. 36
Benthic habitat ..................................................................................................... 37
Fish and spawning grounds ................................................................................ 40
Proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature values .... 43
Effects on ground, soil, water, air, climate, landscape, settlement and cultural
environment ..................................................................................................................... 43
Water and air ....................................................................................................... 43
Climate ................................................................................................................ 47
Landscape ........................................................................................................... 53
Cultural environment ........................................................................................... 59
Management with water, land and the physical environment in general ........................ 64
Energy ................................................................................................................. 64
Recreation ........................................................................................................... 70
Tourism ................................................................................................................ 73
Defence ............................................................................................................... 75
Shipping............................................................................................................... 79
Commercial fishing .............................................................................................. 83
Impact assessment of marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia ......................................... 88
Impact on population and health ..................................................................................... 88
Effects on protected animal or plant species and biodiversity ........................................ 91
Birds..................................................................................................................... 91
Bats...................................................................................................................... 95
Marine mammals ................................................................................................. 97
Benthic habitats ................................................................................................... 99
Fish and spawning grounds .............................................................................. 102
Impact of proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature
values ................................................................................................................ 104
Effects on land, soil, water, air, climate, landscape, settlement and cultural environment.
........................................................................................................................... 106
Water and air ..................................................................................................... 106
Climate .............................................................................................................. 109
Landscape ......................................................................................................... 113
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Cultural environment ......................................................................................... 116
Effects on the management of water, soil and the physical environment in general .... 126
Energy extraction .............................................................................................. 126
Recreation ......................................................................................................... 135
Tourism .............................................................................................................. 141
Defence ............................................................................................................. 142
Shipping............................................................................................................. 142
Commercial fishing ............................................................................................ 147
Reindeer husbandry .......................................................................................... 151
Overall assessment Gulf of Bothnia .............................................................................. 153
Nature and ecological aspects .......................................................................... 153
Recreation, cultural environment and landscape.............................................. 153
Energy extraction, shipping and commercial fishing......................................... 154
Aggregated assessment of energy areas ......................................................... 154
Assessment scenarios show potential distribution of cumulative effects ......... 155
Cross-border cumulative effects ....................................................................... 158
Impact assessment of marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea ............................................... 160
Impact on population and health ................................................................................... 160
Effects on protected animal or plant species and biodiversity ...................................... 162
Birds................................................................................................................... 162
Bats.................................................................................................................... 163
Marine mammals ............................................................................................... 163
Benthic habitats ................................................................................................. 164
Fish and spawning grounds .............................................................................. 164
Impact of proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature
values ................................................................................................................ 165
Effects on land, soil, water, air, climate, landscape, settlement and cultural environment.
........................................................................................................................... 167
Water and air ..................................................................................................... 167
Climate .............................................................................................................. 168
Landscape ......................................................................................................... 169
Cultural environment ......................................................................................... 171
Effects on the management of water, soil and the physical environment in general .... 178
Energy extraction .............................................................................................. 178
Recreation ......................................................................................................... 182
Tourism .............................................................................................................. 186
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Defence ............................................................................................................. 187
Shipping............................................................................................................. 187
Commercial fishing ............................................................................................ 189
Overall assessment of the Baltic Sea............................................................................ 191
Nature and ecological aspects .......................................................................... 191
Recreation, cultural environment, landscape and tourism ................................ 191
Energy extraction, shipping and commercial fishing......................................... 191
Cross-border cumulative effects ....................................................................... 192
Impact assessment of marine spatial plan for Skagerrak/Kattegat ...................................... 194
Impact on population and health ................................................................................... 194
Effects on protected animal or plant species and biodiversity ...................................... 197
Birds................................................................................................................... 197
Bats.................................................................................................................... 200
Marine mammals ............................................................................................... 202
Benthic habitats ................................................................................................. 205
Fish and spawning grounds .............................................................................. 209
Impact of proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature
values ................................................................................................................ 211
Effects on land, soil, water, air, climate, landscape, settlement and cultural environment.
........................................................................................................................... 214
Water and air ..................................................................................................... 214
Climate .............................................................................................................. 217
Landscape ......................................................................................................... 219
Cultural environment ......................................................................................... 222
Effects on the management of water, soil and the physical environment in general .... 232
Energy extraction .............................................................................................. 232
Recreation ......................................................................................................... 240
Tourism .............................................................................................................. 246
Defence ............................................................................................................. 248
Shipping............................................................................................................. 248
Commercial fishing ............................................................................................ 251
Overall assessment Skagerrak/Kattegat ....................................................................... 259
Nature and ecological aspects .......................................................................... 259
Recreation, cultural environment and landscape.............................................. 259
Energy extraction, shipping and commercial fishing......................................... 260
Aggregated assessment of energy areas ......................................................... 261
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Assessment scenarios show potential distribution of cumulative effects ......... 262
Cross-border cumulative effects ....................................................................... 266
Results and conclusions ....................................................................................................... 268
Assessment against the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the Water
Framework Directive ...................................................................................................... 268
Plankton communities and pelagic environments............................................. 268
Fish .................................................................................................................... 269
Seabirds ............................................................................................................ 271
Marine mammals ............................................................................................... 272
Benthic habitats ................................................................................................. 274
Hydrographic conditions .................................................................................... 275
Underwater noise .............................................................................................. 276
Alien species ..................................................................................................... 277
Other effects ...................................................................................................... 278
Fulfilment of Sweden's environmental quality objectives .............................................. 278
Assessment against other plans, policies and programmes ......................................... 280
Assessment of the impact of the marine spatial plan on ecosystem services .............. 283
Supportive ecosystem services......................................................................... 283
Regulating ecosystem services......................................................................... 283
Supplying ecosystem services .......................................................................... 284
Cultural ecosystem services ............................................................................. 284
Gulf of Bothnia ................................................................................................... 285
Skagerrak/Kattegat............................................................................................ 286
Measures, follow-up and monitoring ..................................................................................... 287
Location ......................................................................................................................... 287
Borders of energy areas ................................................................................................ 288
Wind farm design ........................................................................................................... 288
Technological choices for construction, operation and decommissioning .................... 289
Improving and nature-based measures......................................................................... 290
Winter navigation and offshore wind power ...................................................... 291
The impact of offshore wind power on outdoor activities, recreation and the
tourism industry ................................................................................................. 291
Offshore wind monitoring programme ............................................................... 291
Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 293
Population and health .................................................................................................... 294
Protected animal and plant species and biodiversity, bottom habitats ......................... 294
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Water and air, and other elements of the environment ................................................. 294
Climate ........................................................................................................................... 295
Landscape ..................................................................................................................... 295
Visualizations..................................................................................................... 295
Visibility analysis ............................................................................................... 295
Other impacts on landscapes............................................................................ 296
Cumulative and transboundary effects ............................................................. 296
Cultural environment...................................................................................................... 297
Indirect impact – National interest in cultural heritage conservation (Chapter 3,
Section 6 of the Environmental Code) .............................................................. 297
Direct impact...................................................................................................... 298
Indirect and direct impact – Regional value areas ............................................ 298
Other impacts on cultural environment ............................................................. 298
Cumulative and transboundary effects ............................................................. 298
Management with land, water and the physical environment, as well as with materials,
raw materials and energy .............................................................................................. 299
Energy extraction ........................................................................................................... 299
Wind and depth criteria ..................................................................................... 300
Uncertainties and limitations of the method ...................................................... 301
Recreation...................................................................................................................... 302
Area-specific assessments – National interest for mobile recreation (Chapter 4,
Section 2 of the Environmental Code) and national interest claims for recreation
(Chapter 3, Section 6 of the Environmental Code) ........................................... 302
Accessibility ....................................................................................................... 302
Other impacts on recreation .............................................................................. 303
Cumulative and transboundary effects ............................................................. 303
Shipping............................................................................................................. 303
Commercial fishing ............................................................................................ 304
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... 317
List of tables ................................................................................................................................. 322
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Introduction
Marine spatial planning and objectives of the marine
spatial plans
The marine spatial plans shall show the most appropriate use of the sea. It is about providing
spatial conditions for different types of activities or protection in the sea in marine spatial
planning, from a holistic perspective. Marine spatial planning is the process by which marine
spatial plans are developed. It organises current and future activities in the sea basins in order to
achieve environmental, economic and social objectives. The adopted marine spatial plans guide
authorities and municipalities in the planning and examination of claims to use the area. Marine
spatial planning is one of several tools for the state to control and influence activities and the
environmental status of the sea.
In July 2014, the EU adopted a directive on marine spatial planning (2014/89/EU). The Directive
requires marine spatial planning to promote the sustainable development of offshore energy,
maritime transport, fisheries, aquaculture and the conservation, protection and improvement of
the quality of the environment. The ecosystem approach shall be applied in planning so that the
pressure of maritime activities on the environment is compatible with good environmental status
in accordance with the EU Marine Environment Directive, which is implemented in Sweden
through, among other things, the Marine Environment Ordinance.
The EU Marine Spatial Planning Directive was incorporated into Swedish national law in
September 2014 by a provision in the Environmental Code (Chapter 4, Section 10) on state-
owned marine spatial planning in Sweden, and in 2015 by the Marine Spatial Planning Ordinance
(2015:400), which regulates the implementation of marine spatial planning. The Environmental
Code states that the purpose of marine spatial plans shall be to contribute to long-term
sustainable development.
The Marine Spatial Planning Regulation clarifies that the design of marine spatial plans shall
contribute to good environmental status and that marine resources shall be used sustainably in
order to develop marine industries. The co-existence of different activities is an explicit goal. The
integration of industrial policy objectives, social objectives and environmental objectives aims to
provide a holistic perspective in planning. Based on this aspect, 10 planning objectives have been
developed during the previous planning process (see Fel! Hittar inte referenskälla.). The overall
objective of marine spatial planning is Good Marine Environment and Sustainable Development,
which is then supported by the other nine marine spatial planning objectives. The planning
objectives also take into account various international objectives, policy orientations, legislation
and environmental objectives.
New objectives in the planning process launched in 2022 mainly relate to increased ambition
regarding offshore areas of energy extraction. In addition to these, the marine spatial plans have
been updated on the basis of new conditions for area protection and other interests.
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Figure 1. The planning objectives and some of the overarching objectives and conditions that have formed the basis for the
formulation of the planning objectives (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024b).
Strategic environmental assessment of marine spatial
plans
Formal requirements for strategic environmental assessment of marine spatial
plans
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is a process aimed at integrating environmental
aspects into plans or programmes in order to promote sustainable development. The fact that a
marine spatial plan is subject to the requirement to carry out a strategic environmental
assessment pursuant to Chapter 6, Sections 1–19 of the Environmental Code derives from the
Environmental Assessment Ordinance. The work on strategic environmental assessment is
documented in an impact assessment in the form of a single document for the three marine
spatial plans.
The requirements for environmental assessment of marine spatial plans are also based on the
portal section of the Environmental Code, according to which the Code shall be applied in such a
way that:
1. protection of human health and the environment from damage and nuisance, whether caused
by pollution or other influences;
2. valuable natural and cultural environments are protected and nurtured;
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3. preserving biodiversity;
4. land, water and the physical environment are otherwise used in such a way as to ensure
good long-term management from an ecological, social, cultural and socio-economic point of
view, and
5. re-use and recycling, as well as other management of materials, raw materials and energy,
are promoted in order to achieve a circular economy.
This means that social and economic aspects also need to be included in a broad impact
assessment. This document has therefore been titled Impact Assessment, while the requirements
for Strategic Environmental Assessment have guided the work and drafting of the document.
Scope of the impact assessment
The impact assessment takes the form of a single document for the three marine spatial plans,
the effects of which are presented separately and together. The assessment of the impact of
marine spatial plans guidance is at an overall strategic level. The focus is on impacts linked to
offshore wind as the main difference from already adopted marine spatial plans in 2022 is new
proposed energy areas. Concretely, the analysis and assessment of the plan proposal has been
based on an estimate of potential impacts, second-round effects and finally the consequences
that a proposed energy area could generate in relation to other aspects and interests. According
to the requirements for a strategic environmental assessment, positive, negative, direct, indirect,
temporary, long-term and cumulative impacts that could arise from the implementation of marine
spatial plans are reasonably accounted for. The effects are described as potential as there are
uncertainties surrounding all assessments (see also Chapter 8. Methodology). The uncertainties
may be linked to evidence used in the assessment or uncertainty about the actual extent of an
effect, as well as possible second-round effects. The description of impacts, if not specifically
mentioned, does not take into account conditions and consideration measures that could limit
negative impacts when establishing offshore wind energy.
International consultation and cooperation
According to Chapter 6, Section 10 of the Environmental Code, the authority drawing up or
amending a plan must consult on the scope and level of detail of the impact assessment. A
delimitation consultation was held with a consultation period from 8 July to 10 October 2022.
Both the Espoo Convention and its Protocols and the Strategic Environmental Assessment
Directive (2001/42/EC) regulate consultation in case of transboundary significant environmental
impacts. These have been transposed into Swedish law through transposition into Chapter 6 of
the Environmental Code and the Environmental AssessmentOrdinance (2017:966). The general
requirements are to inform the countries concerned of current planning and carry out
consultations when planning proposals and environmental impact assessments have been
prepared.
Since the responsibility for consultation vis-à-vis other countries currently lies with the Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency, the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management has
informed the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency that marine spatial planning is
considered to give rise to significant transboundary impacts. Neighbouring countries Norway,
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Denmark, Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Åland have therefore had the
opportunity to comment through a consultation process that ran from 28 November 2023 to 20
February 2024.
Current situation, zero alternative and assessment
scenarios
Current situation and zero alternative
The impact assessment examines the environmental effects of marine spatial plans with the main
focus on the plan proposals' guidance on the use of energy extraction. The consequences of
offshore wind power being established in the energy areas according to the marine spatial plans
can be seen in relation to the current situation and the zero alternative. The zero alternative shall
represent how the environment would evolve into a given year if the current plan or programme is
not implemented.
There are currently two offshore wind farms located within Sweden's marine spatial plans. The
Lillgrund wind farm in Öresund, which has been in operation since 2007, and Kårehamn off the
coast of Öland, which has been in operation since 2013.
The impact assessment is based on an assessment of the impact of marine spatial plans when
fully implemented. This means that the guidance on different uses in marine spatial plans has
been applied and put into practice. This can be considered an unreasonable assumption, but at
the same time it is relevant for decision-makers to get an overview of the overall impact and
consequences of the marine spatial plans.
The environmental effects and consequences shall be investigated in relation to a zero alternative
in accordance with Chapter 16, Section 4 of the Environmental Code. For marine spatial
planning, this applies both in terms of offshore wind power and other parameters. Seven wind
power projects within the marine spatial plans have been granted permits: Kriegers Flak (2022)
south of Skåne, Kattegatt Syd and Galene (both 2023) in Kattegat and Poseidon (2024) west off
Stenungssund in Skagerrak/Kattegat. The Storgrundet and Falkenberg wind farms have older
permits that have made changes to the application recently. The Swedish Agency for Marine and
Water Management has made the assessment that it is a reasonable assumption that both
existing and licensed offshore wind farms are included in the zero alternative. Furthermore, the
zero alternative is described in Chapter 2 under the heading conditions, current situation and
development for each assessment aspect.
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Figure 2. Shows the zero alternative in the impact assessment consisting of energy areas where there are permits to establish
offshore wind power, including the already existing wind farm Lillgrund (Ö287).
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The meaning and guidance of the marine spatial plans - Level of exploitation
and realisation
Within the current planning system for offshore wind power, there are a number of uncertainties
regarding which energy areas can be realized in accordance with the plan proposal. The
uncertainties are due to several factors, worth mentioning are the secret interests of the defence,
the assessment of site-specific needs for nature protection, as well as other issues that are dealt
with in future permit applications and whether the state or the contractors should bear the cost of
cabling (see also section 6.1 of the proposed marine spatial plan). Responsible authorities
concluded early in the planning process that, within the current system, there is a need for
‘overplanning’ to enable energy extraction equivalent to 120 TWh. The plan proposals to the
Government include approximately 150 TWh of annual energy production. In the case of energy
establishment, some area and hence potential amount of energy would be lost due to safety
zones against shipping. Uncertainties also remain in relation to, among other things, defence
interests and nature considerations. Full deployment as planned is therefore relatively unlikely. In
the impact assessment, it is the full expansion that is assessed as it is in accordance with the
guidance of the marine spatial plan and in line with the target of 120 TWh of annual energy
production.
Assessment scenarios
According to the Environmental Code, a strategic environmental assessment must contain
reasonable alternatives taking into account; the geographical scope and purpose of the plan.
During the various stages of the planning process, the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management has assessed reasonable alternatives in the planning. Prior to the consultation, the
proposals for the marine spatial plan included alternative energy areas. The impact assessment
presented the effects of energy areas and alternative energy areas. The aim was to show
different possibilities in planning when it comes to choosing energy areas in the different marine
spatial plans.
At the review stage, most of the consultation's alternative energy areas had become energy
areas in the plan. In the impact assessment, alternative plan proposals were developed to show
different potential outcomes within the target of 120 TWh based on different aspects.
Prior to submission to the Government, the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management
has developed scenarios to discuss potential cumulative consequences that may arise from the
application of the marine spatial plan. The scenarios do not correspond to planning choices, but
show the energy areas that have the least negative impact on the respective interests. The
energy areas that have the greatest negative impact on commercial fishing and shipping have
been removed in the scenario “Fishing and Shipping” and the energy areas that have the greatest
negative impact on cultural environments, recreation and ecological aspects have been removed
in the scenario “Culture and Nature”, and in the scenario “Energy” all energy areas are included.
There is no assessment of how likely an individual scenario is, but the function of the scenarios is
to illustrate how the marine spatial plans could potentially be applied, with a particular focus on
consequences for different interests. The purpose of the scenarios is to be able to reason in the
impact assessment about the potential distribution of cumulative effects in relation to different
outcomes, and compare with both the baseline option and the marine spatial plan proposal as a
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whole. They also show what an application of the marine spatial plans could have looked like
taking into account different interests.
The marine spatial plans’ relation to other plans and
programmes
Under Chapter 6, Section 11 of the Environmental Code, an environmental impact assessment
must contain a summary of the main purpose of the plan and its relationship with other relevant
plans and programmes. Marine spatial plans shall aim at sustainable development and shall be
based on objectives and strategies at local, regional, national and international level. The
selection of plans, programmes and other processes presented in this section is mainly based on
their relevance for marine spatial planning, with a focus on new areas for offshore energy
production.
National interests, policy documents and spatial planning
1.4.1.1. National interests
National interests are geographical areas that have been identified as nationally significant. The
marine spatial plan proposal shall comply with the provisions for the management of land and
water areas as set out below:
National interest claims under Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code (to be reported by national
interest authorities)
o Includes, among other things, national interest claims for commercial fishing, nature
conservation and outdoor activities, cultural environment conservation, facilities for
energy production and electricity distribution, facilities for communications, and
defence facilities. Authorities that provide information on the respective national
interest claims are listed in Section 2 of the Ordinance on Land and Water
Management.
National interests under Chapter 4 of the Environmental Code (listed directly in the Act)
o Applies to larger areas with great natural and cultural values as well as values for
recreation that are in their entirety nationally significant. This includes coastal areas
and Natura 2000 sites (listed in a specific order).
Marine spatial plans shall guide uses of the sea. The guidance is based on an assessment of the
most appropriate use taking into account the nature, location and needs of the sites and the
overall purpose of the plans. Assessment is made on the basis of national interests, national
interest claims and other public interests of substantial importance.
1.4.1.2. Connection to the transmission network
Svenska Kraftnät is currently working on developing the process for actors who want to connect
offshore wind power to the onshore transmission grid. In these zones, Svenska Kraftnät will
prepare one or more connection points, the positioning and capacity of which will then be
communicated to all stakeholders via stakeholder pools. An offer of connection is made to the
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operator(s) who first obtains the necessary permits for the construction and operation of a wind
farm in the respective zone (Svenska Kraftnät, 2024a).
1.4.1.3. Strategy for sustainable development,maritime strategy and EU strategies
According to the Marine Spatial Planning Regulation, proposals for marine spatial plans must be
designed in such a way that the plan integrates industrial policy objectives, social objectives and
environmental objectives. The National Strategy for Regional Sustainable Development 2021-
2030 sets out a number of strategic areas and priorities in terms of industrial policy objectives,
social objectives and environmental objectives. The national strategy guides the direction of
regional development strategies and directs state funds for regional development work. The
major societal challenges that permeate the national strategy for sustainable regional
development are: environmental problems and climate change, demographic change, and
widening gaps nationally and within the EU. The strategic area considered most relevant for
marine spatial planning is Equal opportunities for housing, work and welfare in the entire country,
which includes ‘good spatial planning’. Urban planning shall promote a social structure that
contributes to sustainable habitats, reduced climate impact, as well as the preservation of
biodiversity and ecosystem services in a changing climate. Another strategic area of relevance for
marine spatial planning is Accessibility throughout the country through digital communication and
the transport system (Government, 2021b).
In 2015, the Government adopted a national maritime strategy for Sweden. The strategy aims to
achieve the government’s vision of ‘Competitive, innovative and sustainable maritime industries
that can contribute to increased employment, reduced environmental impact and an attractive
living environment’. The strategy touches upon a number of policy areas related to the sea,
regional development, business and the environment, thereby contributing to the implementation
of a Swedish integrated maritime policy. The strategy highlights marine spatial plans as an
important instrument for steering development in Swedish waters. For example, by indicating the
most appropriate use for different sea basins, marine spatial plans and environmental
assessment promote safety at sea in line with the strategy, so as to minimise risks to humans,
fauna and flora from accidents. A number of indicators have been developed for follow-up and a
number of follow-ups have been carried out (the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management, 2023). Work is currently underway to update the maritime strategy.
For Sweden, the EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region is relevant, which aims to strengthen
cooperation to jointly address challenges and opportunities. The three overarching objectives of
the strategy are: Save the marine environment, Connect the region, and Increase prosperity. The
strategy includes an action plan, which includes the policy areas of spatial and maritime spatial
planning (PA Planning), and energy (PA Energy). The Baltic Sea Strategy contributes to the
implementation of the 2030 Agenda, but also of the EU's so-called Green Deal. The Green Deal
aims at a transition to a modern, resource-efficient and competitive economy, and together with
other wills includes an industrial transition for a climate-neutral EU by 2050. According to the
Baltic Sea Strategy, alignment with the Green Deal requires integrating climate action and the
promotion of sustainable development into all policy areas of the Strategy. Swedish marine
spatial planning is closely integrated with neighbouring countries' work in this area and its actions
under the action plan.
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In addition, at EU level, there are a number of sectoral policies relevant to marine spatial planning
in the policy areas of climate and energy, transport, fisheries, outdoor activities, and security and
defence. Both the EU Blue Economy Strategy and the Offshore Renewable Energy Strategy and
the European Wind Power Action Plan are working towards the implementation of the EU Green
Deal (European Commission, 2021 and 2023; European Parliament, 2022). In addition, there is
also the REPowerEU plan, which aims to reduce the use of fossil energy, diversify energy use
and produce more fossil-free energy within the EU. The EU has agreed on new additions to the
Renewable Energy Directive (EU/2018/2001) that will change the planning conditions for
renewable energy. The Swedish Energy Agency has been commissioned to map areas suitable
for fossil-free electricity production. The amendment includes systems for the designation of land
and sea areas for energy production (including environmental assessment), and that installations
for the production of renewable energy shall be considered to be of overriding public interest. The
implementation of the proposal could have an impact on both marine spatial planning and
environmental assessment processes. Earlier planning will be the basis for a mapping of possible
sites for renewable energy, and some sites will also be identified as acceleration zones where the
requirements for environmental impact assessment are lowered. According to the directive, the
marine spatial plan should serve as a basis for the national mapping.
1.4.1.4. Regional development strategies
According to Ordinance (2017:583) on regional development, each region must prepare so-called
regional development strategies (RUS). According to the regulation, the national strategy for
sustainable regional development throughout the country 2021-2030 (Regeringen, 2021b) should
guide regional development work. Regional development strategies shall be well-anchored locally
and regionally, and shall be developed in collaboration with the municipalities, regions, county
administrative boards and other relevant state authorities. These strategies contain visions, goals
and long-term priorities for development in each county, and provide a comprehensive picture of
the region's perspective on sustainable development. Taking into account sectoral claims and
assets, these strategies are relevant for marine spatial planning. Regional development strategies
also guide inter-municipal planning and municipal comprehensive plans.
1.4.1.5. Municipal and regional planning
According to the Planning and Building Act (2010:900), each municipality must have an up-to-
date master plan covering the entire municipality, including the sea area (inland waters and
territorial sea) within the municipality’s boundaries. Through the Marine Spatial Planning
Ordinance, municipalities and the state have geographically overlapping planning responsibilities
in most of the territorial sea. This means that differences between municipal and state planning
interests in the overlapping zone may arise, which is a challenge for state and municipal planning
to manage through collaboration and dialogue. Through good collaboration, future conflicts
between the planning levels can be minimized. State marine spatial plans can also help to
develop and strengthen the planning of coastal zones and territorial seas by municipalities.
A municipality can also control the supply, distribution and use of energy. According to the Act
(1977:439) on municipal energy planning, each municipality must have an up-to-date plan for the
supply, distribution and use of energy in the municipality. In its planning, the municipality shall
promote energy management and promote a safe and sufficient supply of energy.
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For the management of cross-municipal issues such as infrastructure, climate and housing
supply, spatial planning also takes place at regional level. A regional plan should provide the
basic features for the use of land and water areas, and aims to facilitate municipal and other
planning. The regional plan is not binding, but must be indicative of comprehensive and detailed
plans and area regulations. According to the Planning and Building Act (PBL), regional planning
is to be carried out in the counties of Stockholm and Skåne, while in the other counties it is
voluntary. The regional plan is relevant to marine spatial planning based on its spatial planning
and the link between sea and land, for example in terms of infrastructure and climate.
Environmental and climate objectives
1.4.2.1. National environmental objectives
Sweden's environmental goals system includes a generational goal, 16 environmental quality
goals, and 16 milestones. The generational goal is overarching for Swedish environmental policy,
which in turn should guide environmental work at all levels of society. To the generational goal
there are a number of so-called indents that clarify the meaning of the goal and what
environmental policy should focus on. The indents that are particularly relevant for marine spatial
planning are:
• Ecosystems have recovered, or are recovering, and their ability to generate long-term
ecosystem services is secured.
• Biodiversity and the natural and cultural environment are preserved, promoted and used
sustainably.
• Human health is exposed to minimal negative environmental impacts while the positive
impact of the environment on human health is promoted.
• The share of renewable energy is increasing and energy use is efficient with minimal impact
on the environment.
Of the 16 Swedish environmental quality objectives, the following are most central to marine
spatial planning: Sea in balance and living coast and archipelago, Limited climate impact, Non-
toxic environment, No eutrophication, A rich plant and animal life, and A good built environment.
The environmental quality objectives are described in a number of specifications, some of which
are particularly relevant for marine spatial planning. This applies, for example, to ecosystem
services, favourable conservation status, endangered species, green infrastructure, the protection
of recreation and the preservation of cultural and nature values. Clarifications on good
environmental status under the Marine Environment Ordinance (2010:1341) and good chemical
and ecological status under the Water Management Ordinance (2004:660) are also important for
marine spatial planning.
1.4.2.2. Climate policy at national and EU level
In 2017, Sweden adopted a climate policy framework consisting of a Climate Act (2017:720),
climate objectives and a climate policy council. The Climate Act requires the Government to
conduct a policy based on the climate objectives and to report regularly on developments.
Sweden has a long-term climate target of zero net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2045,
before achieving negative emissions thereafter. The target means that greenhouse gas emissions
from Swedish territory will be at least 85 per cent lower by 2045 than emissions in 1990. The
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remaining emissions (down to zero) are achieved through so-called accompanying measures. In
order to reach the target, the capture and storage of carbon dioxide of fossil origin may also be
counted as a measure where reasonable alternatives are lacking (Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency, 2024c). The Government has also adopted an action plan containing concrete
measures for how Sweden can achieve both national and international climate targets
(Government letter, 2023/24:59). Climate adaptation work relates to marine spatial planning
through work on increased preparedness and risk and vulnerability analyses in accordance with
Ordinance (2018:1428) on authorities' climate adaptation work, but also on the basis of the
national climate adaptation strategy (Government Bill 2017/18:163) with the priority biological and
ecological effects.
The EU’s 2050 climate neutrality objective is in line with international commitments under the
Paris Agreement. Through the Regulation on a European Climate Law, the political ambition to
achieve the climate targets by 2050 becomes a legal obligation for the EU and through its
adoption, Member States commit to reducing net greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030
(European Council, 2021a). The EU strategy to achieve these objectives is the Green Deal (see
section 1.3.1.3) and the so-called Fit for 55 package is expected to put this into practice. The
package includes a set of proposals for the revision of climate, energy and transport-related
legislation and new legislative initiatives to align Union law with the EU’s climate objectives. The
EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change (European Council, 2021b) and its actions, such
as the collection and sharing of data and knowledge, as well as objectives to promote nature-
based solutions to strengthen climate resilience and ecosystems are also relevant for marine
spatial planning.
1.4.2.3. EU directive for the marine and aquatic environment
The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC) aims to achieve good environmental
status in the EU's marine areas and is implemented in Swedish legislation through the Marine
Environment Ordinance (2010:1341). For Swedish sea areas, the Swedish Agency for Marine
and Water Management has decided in regulations (HVMFS 2012:18) on what characterises
good environmental status and established environmental quality standards with indicators. The
Agency has also established an environmental monitoring programme and an action programme.
Marine spatial planning supports the implementation of marine environmental management
primarily through spatial planning that promotes good environmental status. The work in marine
management also takes place through regional agreements such as HELCOM (Helsinki
Convention) with an action plan for the Baltic Sea, and its counterpart in the North-East Atlantic,
OSPAR (Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic).
The EU Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) also has some links to marine spatial planning
based on land-based activities, water resources and potential indirect well-to-sea pressures and
uses. The Directive is implemented in Sweden through the Water Management Ordinance
(2004:660) and has correspondingly objectives for the environmental status of freshwater and
coastal areas. Sweden's five water authorities decide on management plans, environmental
quality standards and programmes of measures.
1.4.2.4. Biodiversity work
The Swedish work to strengthen biodiversity, combat climate change and promote sustainable
use includes a number of tools. Some of these are marine area protection, regional action plans
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for green infrastructure, counteracting physical impacts on the aquatic environment, restoration,
measures for endangered species, counteracting invasive alien species, and regulations in
fisheries. The national work is mainly based on the implementation of the EU Birds and Habitats
Directives (2006/147/EC and 92/43/EEC respectively), the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 and
the EU's Common Fisheries and Agricultural Policy. The role of marine spatial planning in this is
about spatial guidance and trade-offs regarding, for example, commercial fishing and the
protection of nature values.
The EU Biodiversity Strategy (European Commission, 2020) includes a long-term plan for the
protection and restoration of nature and ecosystems, including a target of protecting at least 30%
of the marine area by 2030. Of this 30%, 10 percentage points shall be strictly protected. The
strategy also includes measures for invasive alien species and endangered species, as well as
requirements for Member States to develop national commitments for protection and restoration.
As part of the strategy work, the European Commission presented a proposal for a Nature
Restoration Regulation in June 2022, which entails, among other things, the restoration of 20% of
the sea by 2030, the European Parliament adopted the Restoration Regulation in February 2024
and it is now up to subsequent instances to take the regulation further.
Furthermore, the strategy requires Member States to ensure that at least 30% of all species and
habitats that are currently not in favourable status fall into that category or show strong positive
trends. The Commission will also request Member States to ensure by 2030 that there is no
deterioration in the conservation trends and status of any of the habitats and species protected
under the Birds and Habitats Directives (for marine environments also EUNIS). Marine spatial
planning supports the implementation of these directives and strategies through the spatial
guidance provided by marine spatial plans on the use of the sea.
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Terminology and definitions
Use is a term for the types of activities or interests categorised in marine spatial plans: electricity
transmission, energy extraction, investigation area energy extraction, recreation, defence, general
use, cultural environment, nature, sand extraction, investigation area sand extraction, shipping,
investigation area shipping and commercial fishing.
Pressure is the change in physical conditions resulting from the implementation of the plan (e.g.
use of an area, turbidity or noise).
Effect or impact is the change in the environment caused by a pressure on an ecosystem
component (habitat or individual flora and fauna). Impacts can be direct or indirect, cumulative,
positive or negative, long or short term and give rise to consequences (see below).
The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the conservation of nature values, sustainable use
and equitable distribution of natural resources. It aims to take into account both environmental,
social and economic contexts and a more integrated management methodology. The approach
includes a number of guiding principles (the Malawi principles), including the principle of ensuring
that the use of ecosystems takes place within their boundaries (Convention on biological
diversity, 2007). The implementation of strategic environmental assessment and the integration of
environmental considerations into marine spatial planning is part of the application of the
ecosystem approach.
Ecosystem components in Symphony are habitats, species or groups of animals and plants that
constitute a part of marine ecosystems.
Ecosystem services are the products and services of nature's ecosystems that contribute to
human well-being and welfare. The concept helps to systematize the link between ecology and
society and makes it clear that well-functioning ecosystems are important for society, health and
welfare.
Climate neutrality means that greenhouse gas emissions are net zero.
Consistency is the importance of effects from an environmental and social perspective.
Environmental aspects are the aspects described in Chapter 6 of the Environmental Code, with
regard to which the environmental assessment is made.
An environmental impact assessment is the written report that identifies, describes and
assesses, among other things, the likely significant environmental effects of implementing the
plan, programme or amendment.
Strategic environmental assessment of plans and programmes is the process underlying the
environmental impact assessment. It contains certain elements that authorities and municipalities
must implement when establishing or amending certain plans or programmes whose
implementation is likely to have significant environmental effects (Chapter 6 of the Environmental
Code).
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Instructions for reading
This Impact Assessment is divided into eight chapters. After this introductory chapter, chapter two
describes the current situation, conditions and environmental effects, as well as the impact linked
to offshore wind power for all assessment criteria and interests. Chapters three, four and five
follow with a description of the expected effects of the marine spatial plans for the Gulf of Bothnia,
the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat, respectively. Chapter 6 compiles the assessments for
each marine spatial plan in relation to the assessment criteria under the Marine Strategy
Framework Directive and the Water Framework Directive. The chapter also contains analyses of
the marine spatial plans' contribution to meeting Sweden's environmental quality objectives and
targets in other policies, plans and strategies, and finally an analysis of the plan's impact on
ecosystem services. Chapter 7 proposes measures to prevent, deter, offset or remedy the
significant adverse environmental effects identified in the impact assessment. The last chapter
presents the methods used in the impact assessment.
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Conditions and environmental effects
Impact on population and health
Current situation, conditions and development
The sea and coastal areas are an important basis for the well-being and health of many people.
The ocean generates a variety of ecosystem services such as climate regulation, food and
attractive recreational environments that to varying degrees affect people's quality of life (see
Section 6.4. Ecosystem services). The ability of the ocean to deliver ecosystem services that can
directly benefit human health is highly dependent on how marine areas are used. Access to
recreational areas in the sea, or in coastal environments, can contribute positively to public health
and also have positive socio-economic effects.
All uses in marine spatial plans can generate effects that can affect human health, both directly
and indirectly. Negative health impacts can be linked to uses such as shipping, sand extraction
and defence activities that can generate noise and emissions affecting air and water quality.
Protected nature areas contribute to positive health effects when the ability of ecosystems to
generate ecosystem services is safeguarded. Fishing, both commercial and recreational, can
contribute positively to people's access to nutritious food, but there is also a problem of chemical
pollution in fish from certain areas. Risks related to the different uses can also pose health risks
to humans, such as increased risk of collisions, accidents and incidents at sea.
Climate-related health impacts are one of the biggest challenges for human health in the coming
decades (Public Health Agency of Sweden, 2024). Through regulating ecosystem services such
as climate regulation, water purification, atmospheric purification and biological remediation, the
ocean can contribute to improved conditions for tackling climate-related health effects such as
increased air pollution, increased heat waves and the spread of microorganisms (Paulsson et al.,
2024). The ocean is yet another relatively unexplored resource for health-promoting products, but
marine organisms can be an important resource for researching and producing pharmaceuticals
and other medical products.
Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy
Offshore wind energy deployment can affect human health in several ways, both directly and
indirectly. Knowledge of the effects of offshore wind power on human health is to some extent
limited as large-scale offshore wind power is relatively new. The health effects of onshore wind
power have been studied to a greater extent. Some of the conclusions are relevant for offshore
wind, although they are not always directly applicable given the differences between land and
sea. Onshore wind power risks being built closer to homes and other environments where people
live. Vindval’s latest synthesis report on the impact of wind power on human interests includes a
review of studies of effects on health (Bolin et al., 2021). The synthesis lifts noise, shadows and
warning lights/obstacle lighting as the main possible influence factors. More indirect health effects
from offshore wind power could result from changed opportunities for recreation and outdoor
activities, as well as an increased risk of accidents. Reduced opportunities to perform activities
that are important for both physical and mental health can lead to negative health effects (see
also section 2.4.2 Recreation). Examples of activities that may not occur are that people no
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longer feel motivated to visit a coastal area that has been exploited with wind power, or that the
offshore wind power prevents people from, for example, practicing recreational fishing, diving or
canoeing in the area.
Airborne noise and infrasound
A wind farm generates several different types of noise, both low-frequency noise and infrasound
that arise primarily from the rotation of the rotor blades, but also mechanical noise from the plant
itself. Within a wind farm, the noise level can be up to 50 dBA in the air. How the sound spreads
in the air from the parks depends, among other things, on the turbine's design and technical
specifications, but is also affected by weather conditions and natural conditions. Generally
speaking, sound spreads well over the sea, but there are limited studies on the noise impact of
large offshore wind turbines. In Sweden, the guideline value for wind power noise is 40 dBA at
homes, and 35 dBA in areas where the soundscape is particularly important and natural sounds
dominate (Naturvårdsverket, 2020). The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency carried out
an analysis of the sound environment in Sweden’s nature areas, which shows that the existing
offshore wind turbines are a source of noise, but the sound level decreases within a few
kilometres of the parks and does not affect the soundscape on the coast (Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency, 2024). The infrasound generated by wind turbines is considered to be very
low in relation to other sources, and according to Bolin et al. (2021) there is currently no scientific
evidence that infrasound from wind farms leads to direct or indirect health problems. However,
the offshore wind farms planned today are larger than already existing, both in terms of the
number and size of turbines, which means that studies on the spread and impact of noise are an
important aspect of future environmental assessments for specific offshore wind projects.
Shading and obstacle lighting
Shadows from wind turbines can be perceived as disturbing (Bolin et al., 2021). Studies in this
area focus mainly on onshore wind power and shading in the vicinity of residential areas, and the
phenomenon is less relevant for offshore wind power as people rarely stay in offshore wind
farms. When it comes to shading, the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning (2009)
states that it is difficult to determine the limit for which distance shadows from wind turbines are
perceivable. A study for the UK Department of Energy and Climate mentions a distance of ten
rotor diameters as the limit beyond which shading is not perceived as problematic (Parsons and
Brinckerhoff, 2011). For modern works with a total height of 350 m and a rotor diameter of 320-
330 metres, this means a boundary distance of 3.2 to 3.3 kilometres.
Wind turbines shall be equipped with warning lights, known as obstacle lighting. The purpose of
obstacle lighting is to avoid collisions with air and sea traffic. According to Transportstyreslen’s
regulations, turbines higher than 150 m must be equipped with a high-intensity white flashing
light, and internal or lower wind turbines can be equipped with a medium-intensity red light
(Transportstyrelsen, 2020:88). Obstacle lighting can be perceived as disturbing to people.
However, research in the field has not yet clarified the relationship between exposure to obstacle
lighting and possible health problems, such as sleep disturbances (Bolin et al. 2021). Obstacle
lighting can be perceived as more disturbing in sparsely populated areas where other artificial
light is rare, or absent altogether. The lights flash and shine relatively brightly (Odell et al., 2022).
Wind turbines usually have synchronised lighting, which can amplify the perceived disturbance.
Furthermore, the cumulative aspect of wind power installations can be assumed to affect people's
experiences. For example, if wind turbines dominate a coastline and several parks are visible at
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the same time, the effect may be more noticeable. In other countries, regulations on obstacle
lighting for wind power differ, and the lighting is adapted to avoid disturbing people (Odell et al.,
2022).
Distribution of health impacts – individual experience and generational aspect
Effects of wind power on human health also have a psychological dimension that is influenced by
individual differences such as attitude towards wind power, personality and age (Bolin et al.2021;
Poulsen et al., 2019). Research has shown that individuals who experience an unfair
establishment process of wind power, negative impact on landscapes or other disturbances can
experience psychological discomfort from wind power establishments, which in the long term can
lead to ill health. This negative effect from wind power is very subjective, and the opposite may
also apply, that is, some individuals in the population experience positive health effects linked to
the psychological dimension. The parts of the population that experience the effects of wind
power installations are, on the one hand, the people who live or stay on the coast, as well as
people who for various reasons are at sea, such as fishermen, sailors or recreationists (see
section 2.4.2 Outdoor activities). A wind farm can be expected to operate between 25-30 years
and an environmental permit can be valid for up to 40 years, therefore there is also a generational
aspect to take into account as future generations will experience the consequences and effects of
possible decommissioning.
Indirect health effects due to changes in emissions
As mentioned earlier, climate-related health impacts are one of the biggest challenges for human
health in the coming decades (Public Health Agency of Sweden, 2024). In the longer term, wind
power can also have positive effects on human health through the production of renewable
energy and reduced net greenhouse gas emissions. Similarly, other positive indirect effects may
also apply to the reduction of other air pollutants such as the amount of air particles and
hydrocarbons in the urban environment, which affects air quality and health in the local and
residential environment (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2024b).
Collisions and accidents
Additional aspects related to the impact of offshore wind energy are a potential increased risk of
collisions and accidents, which can affect the safety and security of people at sea. Fixed
installations at sea mean that there is a risk of collision and allision. Accidents at wind farms with
the risk of incremental spillage of fuel, oil and other chemicals can be difficult to manage (see
also Section 2.4.4. Defence, and 2.4.5. Shipping). Currents can cause distressed people and
ships to drift into the park, including breakdowns by aircraft. Wind turbines affect the ability of
rescue resources to operate in and around the park area. The Swedish Transport Agency and the
Swedish Maritime Administration have described the importance of carrying out a risk analysis as
part of the licensing process to manage possible accident risks (Swedish Maritime Administration
and Swedish Transport Agency, 2023).
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Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 1. Shows the type of direct and local impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the impact on
population and health, as well as possible consideration measures.
Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Facility Noise
Risk of spreading contaminants in sediments Wind farm location
Operation and Visual impact turbines Location of wind turbines
maintenance
Visual impact obstacle lighting Height of wind turbines
Risk of collision Clear safety distances
Noise
Settlement Noise No specific measure
Increased traffic
Effects on protected animal or plant species and
biodiversity
Birds
Current situation, conditions and development
Swedish sea areas are some of the most important areas for birds in the world. Many seabirds
with breeding areas in northern Scandinavia and western Russia including the Arctic and
northeast Atlantic have the Baltic Sea and Kattegat as some of the central wintering areas. For
many more species, sea areas provide passages for further migration to resting and wintering
areas along the coasts of Western Europe and further south to the Mediterranean and Africa.
Also many terrestrial birds with large recruitment areas in northwestern Russia and northern
Scandinavia follow the same routes. In total, the movements involve several hundred million birds
annually and in a few places, so-called bottlenecks, where the distance over the open sea is
small, particularly large numbers of birds are concentrated.
The most important places with very concentrated routes include the North Kvarken, the Åland
Sea, an east-west route that passes Öland and Gotland, Öresund, the northern Jutland-Bohus
coast and the Grenå-Anholt-Halland coast. The ranges at these sites differ somewhat in terms of
the number of birds, how concentrated the routes are and which species have their main routes
there.
Different species also have different migration processes and different migration biology where,
for example, the time of passage varies, if the birds move during the day or night, if they move in
flocks or single on a broad front, if they use thermals or fly actively, if they move at high altitude or
low, etc. These different factors also affect how sensitive different species are to wind power.
The different sea areas differ with respect to the bird fauna and when in the year the birds stay
there. In the Bothnian Bay and the Bothnian Sea there are coastal nesting birds that, to varying
degrees, can also use water areas further out to sea, for example within designated energy
areas. Characteristic species are common eider, velvet scoter, red-breasted merganser, black
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guillemot, razorbill, common guillemot, european herring gull, lesser black-backed gull, arctic tern,
red-throated loon and white-tailed eagle. The Bothnian Bay is normally ice-covered in winter as
well as large parts of the Bothnian Sea and therefore it is only in the southern areas that there are
some wintering areas of importance, mainly Finngrunden. Migrating birds are believed to move
throughout the sea area, but there are some places where higher concentrations occur. One is
particularly extensive in the spring and takes place from the Dalälven water system where the
birds move out over the southern Bothnian Sea, presumably quite wide in a northeasterly
direction towards the mainland coast of Finland and continues further northeast. In relation to the
energy areas, it is mainly those around Finngrunden that are supposed to be affected to a large
extent by these stretch movements. The other known route follows the coast and is supposed to
be extended by the furthest north and pass, among other things, Haparanda archipelago.
The proper Baltic Sea, with its very varied environments, is extremely important for both breeding,
resting and wintering birds. Many coastal nesting birds can be found in the archipelagos where
great cormorants, common eiders, gulls, terns, merguses, white-tailed eagle, and guillemots are
distinctive. The shallow embankments are of international importance and for some species such
as the long-tailed duck, significant parts of the global populations are found there. Karlsöarna
islands are the only areas with rocky cliffs in the Baltic Sea where large parts of the Baltic Sea
populations of common guillemot and razorbills breed. Since the guillemots regularly use a zone
of 50 km or more around the colonies, this means that large areas between Öland and Gotland
and north are sensitive to disturbance of various human activities. Extensive movements are also
taking place in connection with the migration of the guillemots to wintering areas mainly in the
southern Baltic Sea.
The most important migration routes in the Baltic Sea pass through the southern parts of Öland
and Gotland and further along the coast of Blekinge and south where virtually the entire coast of
Skåne is affected with the highest concentrations across the Sound.
At more coastal areas there are many important wintering areas that are mainly used by diving
ducks, swimming ducks, great cormorants and seagulls.
Skagerrak/Kattegat has rich bird communities linked mainly to archipelagos in the north and
islands further south. Diving ducks, swimming ducks, arctic skua, waders, terns and seagulls are
typical in these areas. Out in the open sea in areas in and around the embankments Stora and
Lilla Middelgrund and Fladen there are some of the most important wintering areas for razorbills
in the world, but also of great importance for common guillemots and black-legged kittiwake.
Several of the species exploit very large sea areas and originate from nesting stocks in large
parts of the northeast Atlantic, including the British Isles and the Norwegian coast. In winter, there
are large concentrations of seabirds along the coasts.
Variations in bird populations have several causes that are often different in the different habitats
of the species. It is therefore generally difficult to identify the factor that is most important for the
development of a particular stock. Among the uses that the marine spatial plan guides, it is
primarily recreation, fishing, shipping and energy extraction that risk having a negative impact on
bird populations.
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Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy
Fact-based data on mortality, barrier effects or displacement effects caused by offshore wind
power in Swedish waters is limited as only one of the existing wind power plants consists of a
larger number of turbines. The large wind farms that are now being planned offshore therefore do
not correspond in many respects to the small farms where some knowledge has been built up
through multiannual studies. Studies in other countries and regions include both studies based on
displacement observations but also modelling studies, many of which are from
Skagerrak/Kattegat region. The studies have, among other things, generated knowledge about
which species are sensitive to displacement. Empirically based knowledge of collision mortality
appears to be lacking at present for offshore wind power and mortality assumptions are based
entirely on mathematical modelling. There are many uncertain variables relating to collision
mortality, which means that conclusions based on modelling are currently very uncertain. Barrier
effects have been studied in isolated cases and in some cases indicate a strong reaction where,
for example, birds of prey turn around when they reach the wind farm, but it is unclear whether
the birds can pass through in another way. The overall state of knowledge indicates that offshore
wind power can have significant negative effects on certain disturbance-sensitive species
foraging or resting at sea and for the most sensitive species, the disturbance may cover
significantly larger areas than the wind farm itself. For some other species the impact appears to
be very low or none at all, and for some other species these may also be attracted by offshore
wind farms, such as cormorants and seagulls that can use the foundations as resting places
(Leemans & Collier, 2022; Bergström et al., 2021; Rydell et al., 2017). In addition, in order to
draw conclusions about the effects of wind power on bird populations, much more knowledge is
often required, which also includes other influence factors and how different dynamic effects act
in time and space that can compensate or add to the impact of wind power. Uncertainties mean
that power assessments are currently difficult to make and that the safest way to avoid negative
effects is not to establish wind power in the most important and sensitive areas for birds (Rydell et
al., 2017). In other areas where sensitivity is considered to be low or moderate, research
suggests that various protective measures may possibly reduce the degree of impact to
acceptable levels.
Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 2. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the impact on birds, as well as
possible consideration measures.
Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Facility Low risk of impact No specific measure
Operation Displacement Avoidance of wind power in high risk areas.
Collision Stop control in high-risk situations.
Settlement Low risk of impact No specific measure
Bats
Current situation, conditions and development
There are 19 bat species in Sweden, which makes up a quarter of all mammal species in
Sweden. Bats are found almost all over the country, but the number of species and density is
significantly higher in southern Sweden. According to the IUCN's criteria for redlisting, twelve bat
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species are redlisted in Sweden. Bats can be divided according to whether they are migratory or
mainly stationary, which is an important factor in relation to offshore wind power. Bats move and
hunt at night, mainly in warm and relatively still weather.
Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy
Risk of impact on bats linked to offshore wind power can occur primarily during migration but also
during their foraging across the sea from the coast. Bats can be killed in collisions and by
pressure changes caused by the rotor. Wind turbines can attract bats because insects can gather
there.
Relocation
There are two long-distance species in Sweden: Large brown bats/common noctule (Nyctalus
noctula) and nathusius’s pipistrelle (Pipistrellus nathusii), which move south in the autumn and
return in the spring. Migratory movements also occur in several other species, and may vary in
length, including the part-coloured bat (Vespertilio murinus) and soprano pipistrelle (Pipistrellus
pygmaeus) as well as the serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus) and the lesser noctule (Nyctalus
leisleri).
Knowledge of bat migration is limited, but some information is available. For example, it is known
that, like many migratory birds, bats follow the coasts that form the guiding lines in the landscape,
and even when crossing the sea, they choose routes where the distances between the land
masses are as short as possible. Individual markings have shown, among other things, that
northern populations of nauthusius’s pipistrelle migrate from Finland to Sweden via North
Kvarken and further south along the coast. In the central part of the Baltic Sea, data indicate that
bats from Finland and the Baltic States either follow the coast south or fly over the open sea via
Åland or Gotland to Sweden and then further south. In southern Sweden, bats have been
observed stretching south or southwest from Gotland, Öland and Falsterbo. Migration takes place
during specific periods in spring and autumn.
Search for food
Both migratory and more stationary bat species can feed across the ocean. They can hunt
insects that are staying over water or that have drifted out of land with the winds. Hunting bats
have been found up to about 15 kilometers, in some cases even further, from the coast.
Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 3. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the impact on bats, as well as
possible consideration measures.
Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Facility Low risk of impact No action
Operation Risk of collision and damage caused Stop regulation* for high activity of bats
by pressure changes of the rotor
Settlement Low risk of impact No action
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*Methods to reduce the risk of collisions and damage to bats can be achieved by shutting down wind turbines during critical
periods when bat activity is high. Stop regulation needs to be adapted to the conditions prevailing in the marine environment
and may differ from recommendations in the terrestrial environment.
Marine mammals
Current situation, conditions and development
An assessment of the status of the marine environment is made every six years in the Marine
Strategy for Skagerrak/Kattegat and the Baltic Sea, based on the Marine Environment Ordinance.
The latest status assessment is from 2024 (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management,
2024a).
According to the most recent assessment, none of the three seal species, harbour seal, grey seal
and ringed seal or their populations reach a good status in their respective assessment areas. As
a result, seals as a species group do not achieve good environmental status either. The reason
for not achieving good status for seal species is, among other things, that population growth has
slowed down. However, all populations, except the harbour seal in Kalmarsund, meet the
requirement that the number of individuals must be above the population size that ensures a
sufficiently high genetic variation within the population.
The distribution of the populations does not reach a good status for any of the seal species. This
is mainly due to the fact that accessible or historical sites for reproduction, foraging and resting
cannot be used by seals, for example due to reduced ice extent and the disappearance of
sandbanks. The health status of the grey seal population, measured as gestation frequency and
blubber thickness, also does not reach good status.
Grey seals in the Baltic Sea move throughout the Baltic Sea and Öresund and are therefore
considered to be a population. Knubbsäl is mainly found along the west coast down to Skåne.
Harbour seals are considered to be three distinct populations because only a few individuals are
exchanged between them; one population in Skagerrak, one population in Kattegat, Öresund and
the Arkona Basin (neither of these two stocks are limited to Swedish waters but also include seals
in Danish and Norwegian areas) and a smaller population in Kalmarsund.
Ringed seal is found in the Gulf of Bothnia, the northern Baltic Sea, the Gulf of Finland and the
Gulf of Riga. Swedish waters include an assessment of the population in the Gulf of Bothnia.
Ringed seals occurs mainly in the Bothnian Bay with population concentration in the far north of
the bay.
Sensitive times during the ringed seal's life cycle are February-May when mating, pupping,
nursing and fur replacement takes place. Establishment of offshore wind farms during this period
should therefore be avoided. There is a lack of knowledge about how areas with offshore wind
power can affect the conditions for seals, e.g. by affecting ice formation and the presence of sea
ice.
The environmental status of harbour porpoises is assessed for three different populations and is
based for all populations on an assessment of abundance and trend as well as by-catch. An
indicator reflecting distribution is also used for the Baltic Sea population. None of the three
harbour porpoise populations reach good status in their respective assessment areas. As a
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result, harbour porpoises do not achieve good environmental status either. The reason for not
achieving good status is, among other things, that by-catch exceeds the established thresholds
for all populations. For the Belt Sea and Baltic Sea populations, good status of abundance and
trends is also not achieved while Skagerrak/Kattegat population shows stable abundance over
the period of data availability (1994-2016).
Effects and impacts linked to offshore wind power
The impact on marine mammals is mainly caused by the propagation of impulsive underwater
noise and sediment dispersion in the offshore wind construction phase. It is not entirely clear
whether the operating phase gives rise to negative effects, for example through continuous
underwater noise. Harbour porpoises are particularly sensitive to impulsive underwater noise.
Ringed seals are at risk of being affected by wind farms being able to disrupt the formation of ice,
which is a prerequisite for their reproduction.
Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 4. Shows the type of impacts from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the impact on mammals, as well
as possible consideration measures.
Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Facility Impulsive noise from piling. Noise abatement protection measures at
the installation;
Sediment dispersion;
Other disturbance from construction activities e.g.
continuous noise.
Operation Continuous noise No specific measures
Impact on icing
Settlement Continuous and possibly impulsive noise and Noise abatement protection measures
sediment dispersion.
Benthic habitat
Current situation, conditions and development
The diversity of species along Sweden's coasts varies greatly, mainly due to the variation in
salinity. The number of major plant and animal species ranges from about 1,500 species in the
Skagerrak and about 800 species in the Kattegat to about 70 species in the Baltic Sea south of
Gotland. Overgrown seabeds and biogenic reefs are among the most productive and species-rich
environments. Bottoms with few but rare species can also have a high conservation value.
Biodiversity is vital for preserving the ecosystem services on which humans rely and for
maintaining the natural population composition. Both the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea area
have significantly lower biodiversity than Skagerrak/Kattegat and are considered to be more
sensitive to changes. In Skagerrak/Kattegat there are sediment-dwelling organisms that can
increase the oxygenation of sediments and thus the binding of nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon.
This process, which reduces the effects of acidification and eutrophication, is lacking in the Baltic
Sea region. According to Artdatabanken's Red List in 2020 (Artdatabanken, u.å.), 237 marine
species and 60 brackish water species in Swedish waters are red-listed. In general, few marine
species are red-listed, which is considered to be due to a lack of knowledge about the status of
the species. This means that several marine species cannot be assessed on the basis of the red-
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listing criteria. The changes that have taken place in the marine environment are therefore
considered to affect far more species than the red list reflects (Swedish Agency for Marine and
Water Management, 2015a). The knowledge gap is particularly high for invertebrates and algae,
and many species in these groups fall under the ‘Knowledge gap’ category of the Red List.
Generally speaking, the distribution of anoxic bottoms, large-scale climate change and the effects
of fishing are the main threats to marine species. Other important factors are environmental
toxins, exploitation of shallow areas, acidification, and predation from marine mammals and birds
(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2022b).
The Gulf of Bothnia does not contain as many species as the other Swedish marine areas, but
most populations are prosperous. In the marine area there are both brackish and freshwater
species, where a typical benthic fauna community consists of about 10 species (Havet.nu,
2023b). Future changes in salinity levels can have a major impact on the sensitive species
composition. The stable winter ice in the outer lake forms a basis for photosynthesizing algae,
and seals need the ice for the pups to survive. As climate change reduces the extent of stable
ice, the northern parts of the Gulf of Bothnia become increasingly critical (Swedish Agency for
Marine and Water Management, 2018a).
In the Baltic Sea, marine and freshwater species live in the same habitat and are often genetically
adapted to the estuarine environment. Compared to many other seas, biodiversity in the Baltic
Sea is low. Since only a few key species form the foundation of the food web, the Baltic Sea is
particularly sensitive to human influence. Öresund is a shallow area, with flora and fauna that is a
mixture between the coastal environments of the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat. Benthic
habitats are dominated by marine species where salinity is high, while more brackish water
species typical of the Baltic region dominate the shallower surface layer than 10-12 m water
depth.
Large-scale climate fluctuations in recent decades have affected the Baltic Sea, making it difficult
to distinguish between natural and human factors. At the lower trophic levels, the composition of
phytoplankton has changed, which in turn has affected populations of zooplankton and copepods,
which are the main food for fish. At the same time, many underwater plants have disappeared in
exploited and polluted areas, especially in the Southern Baltic Sea. Stocks of invertebrates have
decreased both in number and in individual density, while the Baltic Sea ecosystem is considered
to have undergone a regime change, in particular regarding fish communities (Eklöf et al., 2020;
Yletyinen et al., 2016), which are affecting species dependent on fish.
Blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) is one of the most important biotope-forming species in the Baltic
Sea, as it is the dominant species on hard bottoms (Marbipp, 2018). Other particularly important
biotope-forming species are bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus) and eelgrass (Zostera marina). It
is of great importance to preserve and try to promote these key species. Blue mussel banks are
substrates for other organisms and therefore indicate high biodiversity. These mussel banks also
provide a regulatory ecosystem service in the form of filtration of particles in the water, which
contributes to lower turbidity in the water column. Today, the largest mussel communities are
limited to shallower bottoms and the banks are therefore of high protection value. The range of
blue mussels is limited by salinity and therefore does not extend past the Bothnian Sea.
The importance of the different key species varies in the different sea areas of the Baltic Sea. On
shallower soft bottoms in the Northern Baltic Sea and the South-Eastern Baltic Sea are eelgrass
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and sago pondweed (Stuckenia pectinata) common and important species. In the area south of
Öland, large, dense seaweed belts of mainly toothed wrack (Fucus serratus) have been
documented. In the Southern Baltic Sea, bladderwrack and toothed wrack dominate hard bottoms
and there are also about 100 species of macroalgae, the majority of which are very rare (Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2015a). Eelgrass dominates the soft bottoms of
Öresund. On hard bottoms there are often brown algae such as bladderwrack, which form
seaweed belts.
Skagerrak/Kattegat, with its almost ocean-like conditions, has greater biodiversity compared to
the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia. The Skagerrak, which is deepest, has a more stable
salinity and good oxygen supply, and almost twice as many major animal and plant species as
the Kattegat. Of the macroalgae that occur in Skagerrak/Kattegat, as in the Baltic Sea, a majority
are very rare. In Skagerrak/Kattegat, a large supply of anthropogenic nutrients has led to major
changes along the coast, with sharp increases in the amount of phytoplankton and organic
particles in the water. A larger amount of particles reduces the light supply for plants and an
increased nutrient supply generally favors fast-growing algae. Long-term changes in seaweed
communities vary along the Swedish coast and in Skagerrak a decline has been going on for a
long time.
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, it is also important to preserve and promote the key species blue mussel
and Lophelia (pertusa), which are two important biotope-building species for the survival of the
ecosystems that still exist. Structure-forming species, such as Lophelia, often have a long
lifespan and low reproduction, which makes them sensitive to changes.
Eelgrass is currently an endangered species. Along the coast of Bohuslän, the area spread has
decreased by over 60% since the 1980s as a result of, among other things, eutrophication and
overfishing, which corresponds to a loss of about 12 500 ha of eelgrass (Moksnes et al., 2016).
Eelgrass grows in shallower areas and is therefore rarely found in the areas of the marine spatial
plan.
Even soft bottoms that are relatively unaffected by humans can have high protection value as
they often house endangered burrowing organisms and various species of sea pens. Sponges
are also effective filter feeders that can absorb plankton and other organic matter, spreading
mainly on hard substrates. Many invertebrates are soft-bottomed organisms and have therefore
been significantly affected by bottom trawling. Trawling is most intensive in Skagerrak and
Kattegat, followed by the Southern Baltic Sea area, making the invertebrates in these sea areas
the most vulnerable. The long-lived tall sea pen, which were previously found in
Skagerrak/Kattegat, are particularly affected by the intensive bottom trawl fishing and are
currently under threat (Artdatabanken, u.å.; Shield et al., 2021). Skagerrak/Kattegat has the
highest abundance of crustaceans, such as northern prawn, edible crab, european lobster and
Norway lobster/langoustine. These species are of great economic importance but are currently
suffering from high fishing pressure, mainly from commercial fishing (Sandström et al., 2019).
Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy
The bottom impact in energy areas depends on a number of factors. The type of installation used
e.g. bottom-fixed foundations or floating foundations and also the level of bottom trawling in the
area. Bottom-fixed foundations give a direct impact on the bottom covering the surface that the
total foundation takes up. With modern wind turbines that can stand up to two kilometres apart, it
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is about 1-2% of the bottom of the park that is affected by physical loss from the plant itself.
Floating foundations require anchoring at the bottom and it is these structures and possibly
anchoring ropes/chains that can have a negative effect on benthic habitats. It is also these parts
of the foundations that are underwater and involve the addition of new hardened surfaces.
In cases where wind power replaces bottom trawling as a use in sea areas, the local net effect
can be positive through a reduced overall area-related negative disturbance/loss. The
assessment per marine spatial plan therefore includes an analysis, supported by the cumulative
impact assessment tool Symphony, of the areas in which such a positive effect is most likely to
occur.
The pressure from offshore wind power on benthic habitats is proportional to the construction
area or the size of the energy area. At the same time, the negative effect of the pressure is
dependent on the sensitivity of the seabed and existing nature values. In Symphony, an analysis
has been made of cumulative bottom effect per area in the energy areas. The results are
presented in maps showing where it becomes clear that certain energy areas produce higher
bottom pressures per area. In general, it is only when planning wind farms that a detailed location
can be carried out that takes into account the presence of sensitive and endangered species and
habitat types.
Bottom-fixed foundations and also anchorages to floating foundations mean new hardened
surfaces on which marine life can grow. Here, so-called reef effects can occur that contribute to
biodiversity and a positive effect, but they can also entail some increased risk of spreading
unwanted alien species.
Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 5. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the impact on benthic habitats, as
well as possible consideration measures.
Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Facility Physical disturbance and loss of Avoidance of impacts on sensitive or protective benthic
benthic habitats habitats
Operation Possibility of establishment of Adaptation of foundations/structures to provide conditions for
artificial reefs. Risk of spread of biodiversity "nature inclusive design"
alien invasive species.
Settlement Likely loss of established artificial Avoidance of impacts on sensitive or protective benthic
reefs. habitats
Fish and spawning grounds
Current situation, conditions and development
The fish fauna in the Gulf of Bothnia consists mainly of cod, herring and european sprat, with
freshwater species such as european perch and common roach closer to the coast. Salmon, trout
and eel occur, but consist to some extent of implanted individuals. Stocks of lavaret are stable in
the Bothnian Bay, but in the Bothnian Sea, among other things, the lack of older individuals and
declining catches per effort in commercial fisheries indicate that the stock is outside biologically
safe limits. The situation of Baltic herring has received a lot of attention in recent years in
connection with several reports of declining supplies of herring along the Swedish coast,
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especially large individuals. The low average weight of herring over the past 15 years is
estimated to be the result of, among other things, high fishing pressure, predation of the grey seal
and changes in access to food. The low average weight is one of the reasons behind the
declining spawning stock biomass. Catches of perch have been stable in exploratory fishing in
most of the Gulf of Bothnia, except in North Kvarken, where trends have been negative, also for
the number of large individuals. The situation for wild salmon in the Bothnian Bay has improved
since a couple of decades, and today shows good status, while stocks further south generally
become weaker. Reduced fishing and other measures have led to reduced mortality in recent
years, but there are concerns about disease-related mortality in several rivers. The wild sea trout
stocks have been negatively affected by a number of pressure factors such as eutrophication,
channelling, migration barriers, hydropower utilization and too low water flow in the summer, as
well as consequences of a warmer climate. The impact of fisheries on stocks is not known, which
justifies a precautionary approach to all fisheries. The vendace, which is economically the most
important species in the Bothnian Bay, has relatively stable populations despite annual variations,
although knowledge of the stock structure is considered to be limited. Predation of the seal is
estimated to be up to five times greater than the yield of the fishery (Fiskbarometern, 2022a).
The fish fauna in the Baltic Sea consists of about 50 species of fish. These are mainly saltwater
species such as cod, herring and sprat, while the more coastal areas are dominated by
freshwater species such as perch and roach, but also by flatfish. Eel occurs along the coastal
areas with the largest distribution in the southern sea areas. The stocks of salmon, trout, eel and
to some extent also lavaret, are a mixture of natural and planted fish. In the Baltic Sea, fishing
pressure has historically had a major impact on several commercially interesting species such as
cod, haddock, common sole, european plaice and pollack. The recovery is slow despite the
cessation of fishing for certain species, the removal of the trawl limit and the implementation of
other conservation measures. The status of cod is of particular concern, with recruitment of young
cod at very low levels since 2017 (Fiskbarometern, 2022b). In the Öresund area, the situation is
better, where trawl fishing has been prohibited since the 1930s, but here too the proportion of
large fish has decreased in recent years (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management,
2015a).
The composition of the fish fauna in Skagerrak/Kattegat is approximately the same as in the rest
of Skagerrak/Kattegat. About 80 marine fish species reproduce in Swedish waters and the
number of fish species generally decreases from Skagerrak towards Öresund. Cod, herring, sprat
and sandeel predominate, and on sandy and clay bottoms mostly flatfish. Eel occurs along the
entire west coast of Sweden, but more generally in the southern parts (Swedish Agency for
Marine and Water Management, 2015b). The largest eel stock in Sweden is located in the
southern Skagerrak's inland coastal area, but the abundance is high throughout the marine
spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat. The fishing community in Skagerrak/Kattegat has since
the end of the 19th century changed with a reduction of large, adult predatory fish to an
ecosystem where small and young individuals dominate. Examples of species strongly affected
by fishing pressure are cod, haddock, common sole, plaice and pollack. Recovery is slow despite
various conservation measures, and levels are not satisfactory. The cod stocks are still at such a
low level that they are considered to have reduced reproductive capacity.
Fishing is the main human impact on fish stocks, but it also results from nutrient inputs and
environmental toxins, as well as from exploitation and physical impact on habitats. Regulation of
rivers and clearings in both large and small rivers affect fish stocks and fisheries by limiting
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access to suitable spawning grounds for marine fish (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management, 2015a). Other physical disturbances in the ecosystem may be due to dredging,
facilities, lost fishing gear and noise. One factor of uncertainty is how the fish's habitat and food
base are affected by climate change and the increased distribution of oxygen-poor seabeds in the
Baltic Sea. More than 20 fish species are included in the Red List for endangered species,
including cod, haddock, common ling and atlantic halibut, as well as hake and thorny skate
(Swedish Institute for the Marine Environment, 2016).
Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy
According to the latest synthesis of the effects of offshore wind power on fish, there is much in the
overall scientific evidence to suggest that the supply of offshore wind turbines does not pose a
threat to fish species or populations (Öhman, 2023). However, the conclusion only applies if
certain precautionary measures are introduced to minimise the pressures of offshore wind power,
in particular impulsive underwater noise and sediment dispersion. However, like other studies, the
synthesis highlights that the effects can differ significantly between different areas and that
important knowledge gaps remain (see also Hogan et al., 2023). For these reasons, wind power
establishment should be preceded by a local assessment of how fish including fish spawning may
be affected.
The question of how offshore wind power can affect salmon was raised in the consultation for the
marine spatial plans. The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management therefore tasked
SLU Aqua with compiling the current state of knowledge based on available research on the risk
of impacts from offshore wind power on migratory salmon (Koehler et al., 2024). The assessment
is based on literature on the biology of salmon and on pressures from offshore wind power. There
are currently no wind farms where salmon is present in Swedish seas in order to study actual
effects, nor are there any studies from wind farms in other countries. According to the current
state of knowledge, the risk that migrating salmon will be adversely affected is assessed if wind
farms are built with bottom-fixed foundations with a long distance between the towers and located
in the outer lake at a not too shallow water depth (more than about 30 meters).
The risk of negative impact on migratory salmon is considered to be low even when using floating
foundations, but there the uncertainty is slightly higher. The cables that transport electricity from
floating foundations will be in the water mass and would come closer to the salmon than when
using bottom-fixed foundations. However, the magnetic field from the cables has a very limited
spread, in the order of maximum single meters. Although the risk is considered low, it is important
to conduct follow-up studies in and around the wind farms being built, with a focus on clarifying
the salmon's behaviour at the plants. If several wind farms are built, coordinated monitoring is
important in order to monitor possible cumulative effects. The purpose of the studies would be to
clarify the state of knowledge and provide an opportunity to identify the need for adaptations to
mitigate any unforeseen negative effects on a larger spatial scale, such as migration patterns.
The risks associated with sound at the installation can be reduced by means of protective
measures that reduce the intensity of the sound pressure, the area of impact and the likelihood of
fish being present in the area. There is reason to use these methods routinely and also monitor
their actual effectiveness in practice. Conditions may be included in the permit, such as that
works that cause high-intensity noise may not be carried out during certain biologically relevant
periods of time.
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Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 6. Shows the type of impacts from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to impacts on fish and spawning
areas, as well as possible consideration measures that can reduce negative impacts and consequences.
Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Facility Noise and turbidity Protection measures against noise; adjustment of
planting time by season (avoidance of spawning
periods); Choice of foundation type and cable recess
method.
Operation Noise
Possibility of establishing artificial reefs that Avoidance of shallow coastal areas.
benefit fish through food availability and
protection.
Influence on natural magnetic field.
Electromagnetic fields.
Settlement Loss of established artificial reefs. Adjustment of settlement time by season (avoidance
Noise and turbidity of spawning periods);
Proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature values
The plan includes a number of proposals for new areas for particular consideration of high nature
values (so-called small n-areas). These have been developed in a process together with coastal
county administrative boards and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. Areas with
particular consideration to high nature values can be based on existing known nature values
where the designation provides general guidance on particular consideration. They can also
complement guidance on energy extraction, highlighting the need for particular consideration in
energy realisation, e.g. in the form of protective measures for harbour porpoises or birds. The
new proposals for n-areas in this planning round are described in the respective assessment
chapters below.
Effects on ground, soil, water, air, climate, landscape,
settlement and cultural environment
Water and air
Current situation, conditions and development
The chemical and physical properties of the sea are essential for marine life. Both water
characteristics and water quality are crucial for marine species. The salinity varies greatly along
the Swedish coast, from about 30-33 PSU (practical salinity unit, measured in g/l or g/kg) in
Skagerrak to 2-4 psu in the Gulf of Bothnia. The variation in salinity means that each sea area
has unique characteristics and sets boundaries for ecosystems by affecting the range of species.
With the change in salinity comes a shift from saltwater species in Skagerrak to a dominance of
freshwater species in the Gulf of Bothnia. The salinity also varies locally from lower levels at the
shoreline, especially at river mouths, to higher levels in the open sea.
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The chemical status of Sweden's marine areas is affected by both historical and contemporary
uses, both from emission sources on land as well as emissions and activities in the sea.
Environmental monitoring shows that Sweden is still far from the target of a non-toxic
environment, although the supply of a number of environmental toxins has constantly decreased
in recent decades and the conditions for achieving that target have improved in recent years
(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2018b; Swedish Chemicals Agency, 2022).
Since the first measurements of environmental toxins in Swedish marine areas, the levels of early
environmental toxins, such as the persistent PCBs and DDT, as well as lead, have decreased in
marine organisms thanks to success in the action work. This has contributed to the significant
recovery of several marine species such as white-tailed eagles and seals. Although the levels of
most classical environmental toxins have decreased, the National Food Agency recommends that
children, adolescents and women of childbearing age continue to eat fatty fish from the Baltic Sea
no more than two to three times a year as a result of dioxins and other environmental toxins in
this fish.
According to the latest initial assessment under the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive, the
concentrations of most hazardous substances remain higher than the thresholds defining good
environmental status (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024a). Particularly
worrying are the high levels of mercury and brominated diphenyl ethers, which are exceeded in
fish in coastal waters throughout Sweden and where the trend points to no or slow improvement.
Dioxins and dioxin-like contaminants remain problematic in the Baltic Sea. As the Baltic Sea
ecosystem is relatively young and species-poor, it is particularly sensitive to hazardous
substances, especially if they affect key species. Despite a downward trend in tin pollution,
endocrine disrupting effects on snails continue to occur, particularly in coastal waters of
Skagerrak/Kattegat and the Baltic Sea. Cadmium levels in embankment sediments in waters
around Gotland are also too high, which can partly be explained by the high levels in the bedrock
in the area. A growing problem globally is plastic pollution in the ocean, especially when it breaks
down into microscopic particles that can be absorbed by organisms and cause poisoning.
Illegal oil spills from ships in the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat, oil leaks from propeller cores
and wrecks in Skagerrak/Kattegat contribute to pollution of the Swedish sea (Swedish Marine
Environment Institute, 2014). The long tradition of industries in the Gulf of Bothnia has resulted in
many contaminated areas with high levels of environmental toxins along the coast. This has led
to concrete environmental challenges in meeting future needs for maritime dredging, energy
production and transmission. The presence of dumped weapons, wrecks or other types of
dumped material can affect water quality locally and regionally.
Since water quality, and factors such as oxygenation, salinity and temperature are a prerequisite
for life in the sea, this is an essential part of Swedish marine management. As described above,
there are many remaining challenges with the chemical status and other climate-related factors
linked to water quality in Swedish marine areas. Both water and air quality are affected by climate
change, which is expected to intensify in the coming decade (IPCC, 2023). Both warming,
acidification of seawater and increased precipitation and runoff are factors that are expected to
have a significant negative impact on water quality. More complex climate effects linked to ocean
circulation and hydrography are difficult to predict at present. In addition to climate change, it is
pressures in the form of emissions from human activities that can be expected to have the
greatest effect in the long term.
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Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy
Impact on hydrography
Studies have shown that the establishment of offshore wind power has some impact on
hydrography (Arneborg et al., 2024). SMHI was commissioned by the Swedish Agency for Marine
and Water Management to study the hydrographic effects of large-scale deployment of offshore
wind power. A modelling study was conducted in 2024 to investigate how offshore wind power
deployment in the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat affects hydrographic factors such as
temperature, salinity, currents and stratification. The results showed that an extensive expansion
of offshore wind power in the Baltic Sea in particular could cause a shallower halocline, as well as
increased salinity and temperatures in the deep water due to decreasing winds behind the wind
farms leading to reduced vertical mixing (Arneborg et al., 2024). The modelling also showed that
the wind power foundations cause a decrease in the salinity of the deep water in the Baltic Sea,
probably due to increased friction and mixing in Öresund. All wind turbines were assumed to be
bottom-fixed in the modelling, which does not correspond to what a realistic expansion would look
like.
The results of the study are based on certain assumptions, including how wind affects the sea
surface and also the extent of wind power expansion, both internationally and nationally. One of
the conclusions of the study is that there is a sensitivity to these variables and more studies are
needed to investigate how large the effects would be in terms of actual conditions for the wind
wave effect throughout the season, as well as real expansion of offshore wind power in Sweden's
neighboring areas. More studies are also needed to investigate possible second-round effects
that changes in hydrography may lead to for biochemical variables and ultimately how marine
organisms and habitats could be affected. SMHI's researchers also note in the study that
changes that could occur from offshore wind power are smaller than expected effects of climate
change, for example in terms of temperature.
The foundations could also affect waves and the movement of water downstream of the wind
farm. This may be important if the wind farm is located in the vicinity of constantly changing sandy
areas where waves and currents play a role in the design of the shoreline, which could lead to
beach erosion (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2008).
Dispersion of sediments and pollutants
Sediment dispersion can occur during the construction of the foundations of wind turbines and
also during cable laying. The extent of sediment dispersion depends on several factors, including
the characteristics of the bottom material, ocean currents and technical choices at the plant
(Naturvårdsverket, 2008). In general, sediment suspension becomes more extensive in areas
where the bottom and sediment are made up of more fine-grained material, and also in areas with
more powerful currents. Sediment dispersal can lead to environmental effects such as turbidity,
which can affect lighting conditions, fish spawning and biodiversity, see Table 7 below. Detailed
modelling of expected sediment dispersion is done in the permit application for specific wind
power projects, and in the planning of construction, maintenance and decommissioning can be
taken into account to minimize negative environmental effects. The sensitivity of a species to
turbidity varies, depending, among other things, on whether the species is fixed or not and
whether it is accustomed to sedimentation (Bergström et al., 2022). Some species may also be
more sensitive to impacts during specific phases, such as spawning time and the larval stage.
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Another risk in sediment dispersion is if the sediment contains different types of contaminants,
which then risk spreading into the water column and can be absorbed by marine organisms. SGU
carries out marine environmental monitoring and mapping of the seabed within the Swedish
continental shelf area. Information on bedrock material, different sediment strengths and
formation modes, and content of organic matter and environmental toxins (Swedish Geological
Survey, 2024). The spread of environmentally hazardous substances can be prevented by
sampling and mapping of pollutants in the benthic habitat in connection with design. The
presence of environmentally hazardous wrecks, dumping sites or dumped combat materials and
ammunition in the vicinity of the site may increase the risk of spreading environmentally harmful
substances.
Some sediment dispersal also occurs during the operational phase, around foundations. This can
be prevented by laying different types of erosion protection around the foundations. Common
erosion protection consists of a layer of large-grained gravel, pebbles or other material (Hammar,
Andersson, Rosenberg, 2008).
Erosion of foundations
The spread of particles in the form of materials and chemicals from wind turbine structures both
above and below the surface occurs gradually during the operational phase and depends on
external influences from, for example, rain and wind (Pryor et al. 2022). Wind turbines consist
mostly of iron and other metals, in addition there are electronic components and the rotor blades
are made of fiberglass and plastic materials (Energy Agency 2021). It is important that the rotor
blades retain the shape for optimal conditions for energy extraction, therefore they are treated
with a protective coating. The studies carried out have not been able to demonstrate that wind
turbines are a major source spreading environmentally hazardous chemicals, such as PFAS,
Bisphenol A or microplastics (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 2021, Wang et al.,
2018). Research is ongoing to investigate this further, including the PREMISE project at the
Technical University of Denmark (see, for example: Hasager et al.2022; Pryor and Others 2022).
The decommissioning of wind turbines is the responsibility of the companies and this is regulated
in permits for each project (Energy Authority, 2021).
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Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 7. Shows potential impacts during different phases of offshore wind on different aspects related to water, both in the short
and long term, how these impacts may affect other assessment aspects, as well as possible consideration measures.
Phase Effects Indirect effects Long-term Link with Possible
consequences other consideration
aspects measures
Facility Dispersion of Increased Increased levels of Professional Studies of the benthic
pollutants and turbidity and local chemicals in fishing, health, habitat and location,
sediments on concentration of marine organisms, fish and fish as well as planning of
site pollutants impact on marine spawning the plant with regard
organisms and to current conditions
habitats
Operation Impact on Influence Algal blooms Fish and fish Location of wind
hydrographic biochemical Altered oxygen spawning, turbines
conditions properties, such conditions at the Climate
as salinity, bottom, dispersal of
halocline, larvae, altered
currents species
composition
Dispersion of Increased local Increased levels of Fish and fish Use of erosion
substances concentration of certain substances spawning protection, e.g.
during erosion certain sacrificial anodes
of construction substances
Dispersion of Increased local Impact on marine Health, Safeguards and
pollutants and concentration of organisms and Shipping monitoring
oil in the event certain impact on
of a substances preparedness
breakdown or
accident
Settlement Sediment Increased Impact on marine Professional Studies of the benthic
dispersal turbidity and local organisms and fishing, fish habitat and location,
concentration of habitats and fish as well as planning of
pollutants spawning the plant with regard
to current conditions
Climate
Current situation, conditions and development
Climate change is expected to affect marine conditions in several ways and is relevant for all
uses in marine spatial plans. Climate-related effects linked to the sea include changes in
temperature, salinity, ocean acidification, altered and reduced ice formation, rising sea levels and
changing weather patterns (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024d). These
climate effects lead to indirect effects such as changes in species composition and ecosystems
when marine species react to changes. In turn, climate impacts in the sea can also lead to
societal impacts, such as changes in maritime and marine value chains and an increased risk of
beach erosion. Figure 3 below illustrates climate effects in the marine environment, for more
detailed information on the effects of climate change in the sea, see the Swedish Agency for
Marine and Water Management’s climate adaptation plan and the marine strategy (Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management 2024d, Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management 2024a).
Based on regional conditions, it differs how climate change will affect different sea areas in
Sweden. In the Gulf of Bothnia, ice formation is a factor that can play a greater role than in other
sea areas, and in the Baltic Sea changes in salinity and circulation can exacerbate problems with
oxygen-free bottoms. Sea level rise also has a regional dimension as land rise is greater in
northern Sweden (SMHI, 2023). Already today, marine environmental monitoring shows that the
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average temperature in Swedish sea areas has risen and more and more studies confirm that this
affects the ranges of marine species (Sweden’s aquatic environment, 2023).
Figure 3. Shows an illustration of climate change in the ocean (Own illustration: Veronica Berntson).
A changing climate in the future
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), the extent of climate problems depends,
among other things, on how well society manages to
switch to renewable energy production and thus reduce
greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2023). In order to be
able to work proactively with the climate issue, the IPCC
has developed climate scenarios that can give an
indication of a possible development of the climate based
on different levels of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. The scenarios, also known as RCP
(Representative Concentration Pathways), show what a
possible future development could look like from a
continuation of current emission trends (RCP 8.5), to a Figure 4. Examples of possible CO2 emission
trajectories at different RCPs given as billion
very large limitation of future emissions (RCP 2.6), see tonnes of carbon (van Vuuren et al., 2011).
Figure 4.
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Climate scenarios are also applicable in the sea, models show that all marine areas in Sweden
risk facing major changes if emission levels are not reduced. Factors such as increased
precipitation and increased temperature will have an impact on the marine environment. Figure 5
and 6 show projections for the oceanographic climate indicators surface temperature and surface
salinity in Sweden’s marine areas for RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 in 2040-2070 (SMHI, u.y.).
The trend for climate change is that there is an increased risk and likelihood that marine
ecosystems will be increasingly negatively affected (IPCC, 2023), and marine spatial planning
may need to take more parameters related to climate and climate adaptation into account.
Climate change occurs in a context where marine ecosystems are also exposed to other
pressures that stress marine organisms and ecosystems. The combined effects of climate
change and other pressures such as eutrophication, selective fishing or marine pollution can lead
to large-scale changes in marine ecosystems and loss of both habitats and biodiversity (Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024a). Modelling studies using the cumulative
impact assessment tool Symphony show that in the long term, pressures from climate change will
have a greater impact than the combined impact of other pressures (Wåhlström et al., 2022).
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Figure 6. Displays the expected change in surface salt content (PSU) for RCP 4.5 (left) and 8.5 (right).
Figure 5. Displays the expected change in sea surface temperature in degrees Celcius for RCP 4.5 (left) and 8.5 (right).
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Environmental impacts linked to climate change
Climate change is relevant to marine spatial planning from several perspectives, partly because
of its impact on the sea and the interests that depend on the sea’s ability to deliver ecosystem
services, and partly because marine spatial plans can contribute to both reduced climate
emissions and climate adaptation measures. Several uses and maritime activities also generate
greenhouse gas emissions that in themselves contribute to climate change, such as shipping,
commercial fishing, outdoor activities and the hospitality industry. The plan can also help
strengthen the ocean's capacity to deal with climate change by providing guidance on the
consideration and protection of marine environments. Strengthening the resilience of ecosystems
through strategic area protection and coordination with marine spatial planning is part of the
Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management’s climate adaptation plan (Swedish Agency
for Marine and Water Management, 2024d). Guidance on nature use or particular consideration
for high nature values (small-n) can, when applied, contribute to a positive climate effect as
natural ecosystems protected from exploitation act as marine carbon sinks and store carbon
dioxide in either biomass, or in sediment (Björk et al. 2021, Baltic Sea Centre 2021). Marine
environments protected from pressures can also lead to ecosystems becoming more resilient,
withstanding and recover from climate-related impacts, such as heat waves. Potential function as
a climate refugia is a selection criterion for areas with particular consideration to high nature
values that have been applied in marine spatial planning where data were available (Hammar &
Mattsson, 2017). Climate refugias are areas that are considered to be highly likely to host
biodiversity even in a changing climate.
Impact on climate linked to offshore wind energy
Renewable energy production and national climate targets
The addition of renewable energy production is a prerequisite for Sweden to achieve national and
international climate goals (see paragraph 1.4.2 Environmental and climate objectives). In 2023,
Sweden’s emissions of carbon dioxide equivalent amounted to approximately 48 million tonnes
(Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2024c). By 2030, national emissions are to be
reduced by 20 million tonnes and down to 10 million tonnes by 2045 (Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency, 2023a). It is the industrial and transport sectors that account for the largest
emissions in Sweden (see Figure 7 below), and it is in these sectors that there is a great need to
replace fossil-based energy sources as the majority of petroleum-based energy carriers are used
here (Energy Agency, 2024). Demand for energy is expected to rise until 2050, which means that
the supply of fossil-free energy will be particularly important for emissions to be reduced in
accordance with climate targets (Energy Agency, 2023a). There are different projections and
scenarios for estimating future energy needs, see section 2.4.1 Energy.
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Figure 7. Shows Sweden's emissions of carbon dioxide equivalents broken down by different sectors. Note that the figures in
the figure were preliminary, and differ from Statistics Sweden's figures. Image source: Swedish Environmental Protection
Agency, 2024c.
Climate impact and benefits
Offshore wind energy has a positive climate effect as it does not contribute to greenhouse gas
emissions. In addition, it is assessed to have low carbon dioxide emissions from a life cycle
perspective (Energy Agency, 2023a). The climate benefits of offshore wind power are mainly due
to the displacement of fossil fuels. It can be more direct, when electricity from fossil fuels is
replaced by that from offshore wind, or more indirect, when electricity produced with low
emissions replaces fossil fuels as energy carriers in other sectors. Direct compensation is when
fossil fuels for electricity generation is replaced by offshore wind power, and CO2 emissions can
be reduced by substituting electricity from offshore wind power for fossil electricity generation.
Examples of indirect substitution are when fossil fuels for the transport sector and/or fossil raw
materials in industrial processes such as the replacement of coal with hydrogen in steel
production.
It is difficult to estimate exactly what climate benefit offshore wind power could have in the
Swedish energy system, as there are several different factors that affect the outcome. One
example for which electricity generation from offshore wind power could be substituted is the
residual mix. Residual mix is an environmental value for the electricity that is not produced and
sold with guarantees (Energy Market Inspectorate, u.y). It is this electricity that constitutes the
electricity available on the market, there is a Nordic mix, and a European mix. In 2023, the Nordic
residual mix had a climate impact of 524.10 g CO2eq/kWh or 524 100 tonnes CO2eq/TWh
(Energy Markets Inspectorate, 2024). This value is due to a fossil share of 78.82 percent, while
the renewable corresponds to 6.51 percent and nuclear 14.68%, see Figure 8 below. For its part,
the European residual mix had a climate impact of 599.23 g CO2eq/kWh or 599 230 tCO2eq/TWh
(AIB, 2024). This can be compared to a climate impact from offshore wind power that has a
median of 11 g CO2e/kWh or 11 000 tonnes of CO2e/TWh (Energy Agency, 2021). With these
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assumptions, each TWh of offshore wind power would thus have a clear potential for reduced
climate impact. The environmental and average climate impact from the residual mix varies from
year to year depending on energy production, and as fossil-free energy production increases and
replaces fossil production, the climate impact from the residual mix will decrease. The
environmental value of the residual mix has changed from year to year (Energy Market
Inspectorate, 2024).
Figure 8. Shows the distribution of energy sources in the Nordic residual mix in 2023. Source Energy Market Inspectorate, 2024
Landscape
Current situation, conditions and development
The establishment of offshore wind power can mean large-scale changes in the landscape as the
turbines have a considerable height and large sweeping area for the rotor blades. The rotation of
the rotor blades contributes to landscape impact, as well as at night through the active obstacle
lighting.
The current situation in Swedish sea areas is characterised by few and, where appropriate, more
small-scale existing offshore wind farms. These include Lillgrund (Ö287) in Öresund, Kårehamn
east of Öland, and Bockstigen 1 southwest of Gotland. Kårehamn is not an energy area for
cartographic reasons and Bockstigen 1 is not included in the marine spatial planning area. In
general, this means that there are currently few physical installations in Swedish waters, which
means that knowledge of the impact on the landscape is limited. Offshore wind power affects the
landscape in all directions from the plant, but primarily the impact on the coast and how the
physical structure affects the existing coastal landscape is assessed. The location and design of
wind farms can have a major impact on the landscape, where issues such as height, location and
design, formation and lighting come into play. In some energy areas, the marine spatial plan
gives particular consideration to high cultural heritage values, which means that consideration
must be taken in the management, planning and licensing of energy areas, which can contribute
to certain adaptations that can mitigate the impact on cultural environments, thereby reducing the
impact on the landscape.
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The landscape along Sweden's coasts is varied from both a natural and cultural environment
perspective. The natural environments include forested and shrub-clad environments, open,
stony and rocky coasts as well as finely topography-broken archipelagos and flat stretches of
coastline. The cultural environments are characterized by human’s historical use of the landscape
in the form of, for example, fishing communities, but also modern occurences such as large-scale
ports and urban environments.
National interests for, among other things, the cultural environment and recreation capture the
landscape's values and contribute to consideration in planning and permit applications. This
impact assessment includes assessments of the cultural environment and recreation as its own
parts, but where relevant, also described areas of national interest unbroken coastline and high-
exploited coastline under Chapter 4, Sections 3-4 of the Environmental Code. Landscape
protection is also mentioned in the Nature Conservation Act (1964:822) where it risks being
affected by the establishment of offshore wind power. The assessment of the impact on the
landscape can be seen as a starting point for visual effects on cultural environment and
recreation interests.
In an approach to a future outlook, the landscape is expected to be marginally affected along the
Swedish coast. However, larger installations of industrial scale can contribute to a major change
in the landscape, not least of offshore wind power.
Impact linked to offshore wind energy
The impact on the landscape depends on several factors. This analysis of landscape effects
includes the proximity of the energy areas to land, the angle of view from land and from which
points on land the wind turbines are visible. Proximity to land or distance from land is considered
to be the most important impact factor because it largely determines the visual presence of the
works and thus the degree of impact. Other possible impacts on the landscape that offshore wind
power may have are not included in this analysis, such as related onshore infrastructure. Visual
impact need not by definition be negative, as the perception of wind turbines is subjective.
Although negative perceptions of the visual impact offshore wind power can have, there are also
positive perceptions of it (Bolin et al., 2021).
To give an idea of the difference in impact on the landscape with different distances from land,
photomontages has been developed for a hypothetical example park. The park is twenty
kilometers long and ten kilometers wide with the long side towards the coast and the pictures
show it 5, 12.5, 25, 35 and 50 kilometers from land.
The sample park has 72 wind turbines with a total height of 343 metres, a hub height of 200
metres and a rotor diameter of 286 metres. The distance between the turbines is 6 rotor
diameters or about 1.7 kilometers.
The size of the sample park has been chosen to give examples of a medium-sized wind farm
based on the size of the energy areas in the plan proposal. See Figure 7 for the layout of the
sample park.
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Figure 9. The layout of the sample park with 72 wind turbines placed in grids with 1.7 kilometers of distance between the
turbines. The red angle shows the point of view from land.
Below are photomontages for the different distances from land. The Swedish Agency for Marine
and Water Management's website contains these images, images with a marked sweep area and
video animations for the sample park at night. With a larger screen, it is recommended to view the
images with a height of 18 centimeters and a distance of 40 centimeters from the screen for the
most realistic representation possible. In this document, they can be seen at a height of 9
centimeters at a distance of 20 centimeters. Below are the images cropped to fit into the
document.
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Figure 11. The example park with a 5 km distance from land to the nearest works.
Figure 10. The example park with a 12.5 km distance from land to the nearest works.
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Figure 12. The example park with a 25 km distance from land to the nearest works.
Figure 13. The example park with a 35 km distance from land to the nearest works.
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Figure 15. The example park with a 50 km distance from land to the nearest works.
For the images showing cumulative impacts from several parks, similar facilities have been added
as explained below. For the night animations, all works have been provided with a flashing white
light in accordance with the Transport Agency’s instructions. Images and animations are made
without weather filters.
Figure 14. Example of cumulative effect with the example park 12.5 km from land with a view to the right with another park 25
km from land.
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Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 8. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the landscape, as well as possible
consideration measures for planning and planning that can reduce negative effects and consequences.
Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Facility Visual impact Location and design of wind farm
Operation Visual impact Custom obstacle lighting
Settlement Visual impact No specific measure
Cultural environment
Current situation, conditions and development
The cultural environment provides a picture of Sweden's history and people's livelihood. Cultural
environments have arisen through various historical events, processes and activities, reflecting
people's use of the landscape from ancient times to the present. The environments make it
possible for present and future generations to take part in the landscape's historical dimension
and thereby understand Sweden's development through the ages.
Cultural environments can also have significance for people in different ways, where it can be, for
example, about identity and context in life or about well-being. Cultural environments are also
important for economic development at local and regional level, as well as for recreation, tourism
and science. How the environments are used varies from generation to generation. A basic
condition, however, is that there must be a sufficient representation of preserved cultural
environments to be able to understand how the country has formed and developed over time.
The cultural environment in the three marine spatial planning areas includes national interests,
world heritage, regional value areas, marine archaeological sites and cultural reserves. The
cultural heritage in and by the sea is characterised by the traditional industries of fishing,
shipping, agriculture, industry and tourism. Valuable environments, landscapes and buildings are
linked to archipelago agriculture, fishing villages, seaside resorts, harbours, fortifications,
lighthouse and pilot sites and coastal industry, which in turn arose there because of the
connection to the sea. For many of these cultural environments, a nearby coastal and archipelago
landscape as well as free lines of sight towards the horizon are important to be able to
understand the historical context and function linked to the sea. The intensive activities over the
centuries have also resulted in a cultural landscape on the seabed. This includes, for example,
shipwrecks, settlements, ship gates, port facilities and anchorages.
The National Heritage Board is responsible for identifying national interest claims for cultural
heritage conservation under Chapter 3, Section 6 of the Environmental Code. Today, there are
about 300 national interest claims for cultural conservation along the coast, but as yet none in the
marine spatial planning areas. However, cultural environments outside the marine spatial
planning areas may be indirectly affected by changes in landscape or accessibility within the
marine spatial planning areas. In addition to the cultural heritage conservation claims, there are
also national interests under Chapter 4 of the Environmental Code. These geographically defined
areas of national interest are listed in the Environmental Code and have been decided by the
Parliament. They are national interests for unbroken coasts under Chapter 4, Section 3 of the
Environmental Code and high-exploited coasts under Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental
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Code. The areas are of national interest, taking into account natural and cultural values as a
whole, and their use must not significantly harm the values of these areas. See Figure 16 below.
Furthermore, there is also a planning basis for marine cultural heritage values for the national
marine spatial planning, which has been developed by all coastal county administrative boards
according to a government letter of appropriation (RB2021:2B4). The purpose of the assignment
were to clarify cultural heritage values along Sweden's coast that may be affected by the
expansion of offshore wind power. The document presents cultural environments together with
the County Administrative Board's recommendations on consideration needs for the designated
so-called value areas (County Administrative Boards, 2024). In total, there are 96 value areas
along the coast of Sweden. Most of these are located outside the marine spatial plan area, but
with several consideration needs that extend within the marine spatial plan area. Several areas of
value contain existing areas of national interest, but designations have also been based on other
cultural heritage and/or formal protection. This includes cultural sites covered by international
conventions such as the Council of Europe's Landscape Convention and UNESCO's World
Heritage Convention, listed buildings under ordinance 2013:558 on state-owned listed buildings,
cultural reserves (Chapter 7, Section 9 of the Environmental Code) and landscape protection in
the Nature Conservation Act (1964:822), for example. World heritage in the vicinity of Sweden's
marine spatial planning area are the High Coast, the Hanseatic City of Visby, the Naval City of
Karlskrona, Southern Öland's agricultural landscape and Struve's meridian arch
(Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.å.a.).
The marine spatial plan states that particular consideration must be given to high cultural heritage
values in the management, planning and permit procedures. Particular consideration for high
cultural heritage values refers to the landscape's cultural-historical character and visual impact
that changes the cultural-historical content, but also includes consideration for ancient and
cultural-historical sites on the seabed. Particular consideration is given to high cultural heritage
values for energy areas that are considered to be likely to visually affect cultural heritage areas
expressed through national interest claims and value areas. Particular consideration for high
cultural environments is given for all energy areas in the marine spatial plan except for four
(B159, B160, B161, V360). The guidance is considered to be able to contribute to certain
adaptations that can mitigate the impact on cultural environments from the energy areas
(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).
Measures that limit climate change, including achieving an energy transition, can have a positive
impact on the long-term management of all of Sweden's cultural environments. Climate change,
such as sea level rise and accompanying shore shift, can lead to damage to cultural
environments both on land and in the sea. A rise in sea temperature may also involve the
establishment of invasive species that damage wooden structures. Ship sites, older port facilities
and cultural-historical industrial environments can in turn pose environmental threats if they
contain heavy metals and other environmentally hazardous substances that are released into the
sea.
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Figure 16. Map of national interest unbroken coast, high-exploited coast and national interest claims for cultural heritage
conservation (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).
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Figure 17. Map of other valuable areas for the cultural environment such as World Heritage Sites, regional value areas, marine
archaeological sites, cultural reserves and landscape conservation (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).
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Environmental effects and impacts linked to offshore wind power
The establishment of offshore wind power can mainly affect cultural environments in two ways: a
direct physical impact and an indirect visual impact. Direct impacts can occur, for example,
through the interventions on the seabed that the establishment requires and which can thus affect
marine cultural heritage, including marine archaeological sites. The impact area may be larger
than the area occupied by foundations or anchorages, as connection also requires cabling and
other infrastructure both in the sea and on land. There is generally high uncertainty about marine
archaeological sites, and how they are affected by the establishment of offshore wind power.
Lack of situational awareness, low information quality and antiquarian assessments risk causing
damage to marine cultural environments. However, the risk that the establishment of offshore
wind power would damage marine archaeological sites is considered low, as marine
archaeological investigations and studies that should be done can contribute to an increased
knowledge of marine cultural heritage, where more are often discovered and mapped.
The establishment of tall and large facilities can have an indirect, visual impact on a cultural
environment and the historical function it is an expression of. In addition to the wind farm's
dimensions, the complexity of the impact also lies in how the establishment is perceived and
interpreted together with the cultural environment and its values. The conditions for assessing the
impact on the cultural environment solely on the basis of proposed areas for wind power
establishment are limited, as a complete assessment requires knowledge of the expression of
each establishment (height, location, design, formation).
In the 2021 appropriation directions, the Government instructed the coastal county administrative
boards to develop an appropriate planning basis for cultural environments in the national marine
spatial planning (Regeringen, 2021a). In January 2024, the County Administrative Board of
Västra Götaland presented the compilation of the appropriation directions assignment
(RB2021:3B4, County Administrative Boards, 2024). The documentation clarifies which cultural
values along Sweden's coastline may be affected by an expansion of offshore wind power. The
document presents a selection of cultural environments along the Swedish coast in the form of
so-called marine value areas, together with the county administrative board's recommendations
on consideration needs for these. The value areas are based on national interests according to
chapters 3 and 4 of the Environmental Code, World Heritage, municipally designated cultural
environments, ancient and cultural historical sites on land and under the sea surface, landscape
context, lines of sight, cultural and nature reserves, Natura 2000 areas, biosphere reserves and
landscape image protection. At the same time, it should be noted that other cultural sites of
regional and/or local interest may also need to be taken into account when planning an activity or
establishment. Some county administrative boards have also chosen to update and assure the
quality of the information on marine archaeological sites in the cultural environment register in
connection with the assignment.
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Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 9. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in relation to the cultural environment during different phases, as
well as possible consideration measures for planning and planning that can reduce negative effects and consequences.
Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Facility Physical impact on remnants Location and design of the wind farm, as well as aspects
such as height of the wind turbines.
Operation Visual impact Custom obstacle lighting
Settlement Physical impact on remnants No specific measure
Management with water, land and the physical
environment in general
Energy
Government Mission on Revised Marine Spatial Plans and Energy Policy Objectives
The starting point for proposals for amended marine spatial plans is Government mandate
M2022/276 on expanded areas for electricity production from offshore wind power. Increased
electricity production is needed to reach Sweden’s climate and energy targets (see also Section
2.3.2, Climate), as well as to enable a green transition of industry and extensive electrification
(Government 2022b).
The focus of energy policy means that planning for electricity use will be based on a need of at
least 300 terawatt hours in 2045, which means approximately a doubling compared to the current
situation. This, together with an energy policy goal that the composition of electricity production
should be 100 percent fossil-free by 2040. The overall objective of energy policy is to create the
conditions for efficient and sustainable energy use and a cost-effective energy supply with low
impact on health, the environment and climate (Government 2024a).
Sweden is facing strong electrification, with an expected increase in electricity consumption from
around 140 TWh to around 160-210 TWh by 2030 and in the longer term, by 2045 the electricity
demand is expected to be in the range of 200-340 TWh. The range of future electricity needs
depends on scenarios, high and low, and indicates uncertainties in forecasts for the pace of
transition. The increase in electricity consumption is mainly due to the conversion of energy-
intensive industries, new industries and electrification of the transport sector (Energy Agency
2023c).
The energy transition poses spatial challenges for the expansion of electricity production and
grids to meet the increased demand. Offshore wind power also poses a challenge as power
production is weather dependent and thus intermittent. The Government has given various
authorities a number of government assignments in this regard. One assignment concerns
developed regional and local energy planning for electrification, which has been submitted to the
County Administrative Board of Västra Götaland and the Swedish Energy Agency (Regeringen,
2023a). In addition, two government assignments regarding intermittent power production were
submitted to Svenska Kraftnät, the Swedish Energy Markets Inspectorate and the Swedish
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Energy Agency. The assignments concern incentives for better power contribution, as well as the
design and integration of intermittent power production (Government 2024b, Government 2024c).
In December 2024, the final report of the inquiry Wind power in the sea - A transition to an
auction system was submitted. The inquiry's task was to analyse how the establishment of wind
power can be improved and how the permit procedure for wind power in Sweden's economic
zone can be more effective and clear. In addition, in a supplementary directive, the inquiry would
also assess and take a position on whether Sweden should, in the long term, move to an
instruction system for permitting offshore wind power and how it should be designed. The
inquiry's conclusion and recommendation is that Sweden should switch to the allocation and
auction system, rather than the current system. The inquiry justifies this on the basis that the
current regulatory framework is not considered to be appropriate for the exploitation of the sea for
offshore wind power (Government Official Reports, 2024).
Current electricity use and production
The development of the electricity system is central to achieving the green transition. Since the
late 1980s, electricity consumption has remained relatively constant at around 140 TWh.
Dominant end-uses of electricity in 2022 were residential and service sectors, as well as industry,
see Figure 18 below.
Figure 18. Electricity consumption by sector, 2022 share of TWh. Source Swedish Energy Agency, 2024.
Sectors where electricity use is expected to increase mainly due to the transition are the industrial
and transport sectors. In terms of electricity use in industry in 2022, the main sectors were the
paper and pulp industry, steel and metal works, followed by the chemical and engineering
industries, see Figure 19 below.
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Figure 19. Industrial electricity use by industry, 2022 TWh. Source Swedish Energy Agency 2024.
As regards the transport sector and domestic electricity consumption, it remained relatively
constant around 3 TWh, but slightly increased in 2022 to almost 4 TWh (Energy Agency, 2024).
With targets for the transformation of the transport sector, it is assumed that the share of
electricity as a fuel will increase in the future.
The government commission on offshore wind power mentions deficits in electricity production in
southern Sweden, while electricity use in the area is relatively high. Where electricity is produced
and consumed varies regionally. The highest electricity use occurs in the metropolitan regions,
Stockholm County, Västra Götaland County, Skåne County, followed by Norrbotten County and
Västernorrland County. In Västra Götaland, Norrbotten and Västernorrland counties end-users
are mainly industrial and construction activities, in Stockholm and Skåne counties the
predominant end-use is electricity use for other services - and single-family houses, see Figure
20 below.
Figure 20. End-use electricity (TWh) for the counties of Stockholm, Västra Götaland, Skåne, Norrbotten, Västernorrland,
distributed consumer category, 2022. Source SCB 2024.
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The marine spatial plan describes the conditions for energy extraction in Sweden (part 6.1
Prerequisites for energy extraction) including the four bidding zones, from SE1 in the north to SE4
in the south. In northern Sweden there is currently a production surplus, and in southern Sweden
a deficit. The bidding zones provide guidance on where more generation and electricity
transmission is needed through different pricing. In 2024, a joint review of the zoning of EU
bidding zones was ongoing. If the national decision-making body decides on a change, it can be
implemented no earlier than 2027 (Svenska Kraftnät, 2024b).
Surpluses and deficits depend to some extent on the level of production. A larger share of
electricity production takes place within bidding zone 2, followed by bidding zone 3, bidding zone
1 and bidding zone 4 (Energy Agency 2024, Electricity production per bidding zone).
Electricityconsumption in each bidding zone is largely explained by consumption levels at
regional level. Bidding zone 2 includes the metropolitan regions of Stockholm and Gothenburg.
Electricity prices in all bidding zones, but mainly bidding zones 3 and 4, have been unusually high
for a period due to, among other things, the geopolitical situation and high prices for fossil fuels,
especially natural gas (the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2025).
Offshore energy generation and transmission
Offshore energy can be produced from wind, waves, currents, tides or a salinity gradient. In
Sweden, offshore energy production is still carried out on a small scale and mainly as wind
power. In 2022, Swedish wind power produced 33 TWh, of which the offshore turbines accounted
for 0.6 TWh (Energy Agency, 2023d). There are currently three offshore wind farms adjacent to
the marine spatial plans (Bockstigen (Gotland), Kårehamn (Öland) and Lillgrund), all located
within the territorial sea. Kårehamn and Lillgrund are located in the marine spatial planning area.
However, due to cartographic reasons, Kårehamn is not marked as an energy area in the plan
map.
From an energy extraction perspective, there are several advantages of offshore wind power.
Winds at sea are often both stronger and smoother than over land, making it possible to build
efficient parks with a high production. Offshore wind power can provide electricity production in
areas where there are restrictions on the establishment of other types of power such as onshore
wind power. In this way, offshore wind power can provide a greater geographical spread of
electricity production in Sweden. Higher costs for offshore wind compared to, for example,
onshore wind make it difficult to achieve economic viability and may limit the deployment of
offshore wind.
In the case of other offshore energy generation, the technology is new and largely under
development. In Sweden, research, development and demonstration are carried out in wave
power, as well as research in marine current power. Several private and public actors are
preparing new experiments with ocean energy in Swedish waters (International Energy Agency,
2023). Today, there are several wind power projects that highlight the possibility of producing
hydrogen with the electricity generated by wind power, either in the plant itself or on land. On-site
production requires additional offshore infrastructure, either for ships to receive and load
hydrogen, or gas pipelines to shore. There is currently no hydrogen production in the Swedish
marine spatial planning area. With regard to natural gas, there is currently a pipeline between
Malmö and Denmark that supplies the western Swedish natural gas network. Two parallel lines
run between Russia and Germany through Sweden's economic zone (Nord Stream) and another
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line between Poland and Denmark (Baltic pipe) which may also affect the Swedish exclusive
economic zone.
Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy
Environmental effects from offshore wind power, includes environmental effects in the form of the
addition of fossil-free energy for electricity supply, as well as the impact on land and water where
the wind farm is established. Land claims for wind power affect the surrounding environment and
people. Energy extraction also indirectly affects land and water use in the sea and on land,
relating to infrastructure for the construction, maintenance and decommissioning of wind turbines,
as well as surfaces for electricity distribution, cables and transmission networks. The actual
surface requirement for construction, for example, is difficult to assess as it depends on a number
of different factors, such as the size of the project, technology choices, distance to land, use of
ports nationally or abroad, and other factors. See section 6.1 on prerequisites for energy
extraction in the planning document (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2025).
The impact varies between the construction phase, the operational phase and the
decommissioning phase. The impact during the construction and decommissioning phase is
temporary, and mainly concerns bottom impact and noise. The imprint is also of a different nature
depending on the type of foundation.
Bottom-fixed foundations are anchored in place either by drilling, piling or suction cup anchors
into the seabed, or by gravity foundations. Today, bottom-fixed foundations are used down to
about 70 meters depth, but experiments occur in deeper waters. Floating foundations can be
used in front of bottom-fixed at depths of at least around 50 meters, and anchored to the bottom
with ropes or chains. The floating wind power has a significantly larger footprint in the water
column compared to the bottom fixed, since cables and power cables need to be several times
longer than the distance between the turbine and the bottom. The different types of foundations
have approximately the same impact on the bottom (Energy Agency, 2023a). During the
operation phase, some noise occurs, but the effects of this are not clear. Birds and bats are at
risk of being affected by collisions, but some species may also suffer habitat loss as they avoid
the wind farm and seek food elsewhere. The cable laying entails physical impact on the benthic
habitat as well as turbidity and electromagnetic radiation. A potential positive effect of wind power
is that the foundations can act as artificial reefs and attract different marine species, such as fish
and marine mammals (Bergström et al., 2022). Wind power also affects the conditions for other
industries such as commercial fishing, shipping and air traffic.
Which environmental effects and impacts actually occur depends on the possibility of coexistence
and for adaptations, possible consideration measures of wind farms or activities. For more
information see the respective sections in Chapter 2 Conditions and environmental effects.
National interests and the marine spatial plan's guidance energy
The Swedish Energy Agency decides on national interest claims for installations for energy
production and distribution in accordance with Chapter 3, Section 8 of the Environmental Code.
The Swedish Energy Agency has been tasked with updating its national interest claims
(Regeringen, 2024e). Appropriate areas for energy extraction reported in 2023 are seen as a
basis for the designation of new areas of national interest (Energy Agency 2023a).
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The claims for energy production in the marine spatial plan area include wind farms and are
based on criteria for annual average wind, depth and area size. National interest claims for
energy production were developed in 2013, and technology development in wind power has been
rapid since then. Technological development since 2013 means that today there are more areas
that have suitable properties for wind power compared to when the national interest claims were
decided.
The marine spatial plan's guidance of energy areas takes into account uncertainties regarding
feasibility in time, economic and spatial conditions and with regard to various interests such as
defence, culture and nature values and adaptations to shipping safety zones. The plan proposal
does not, for example, provide guidance on specific safety distances to shipping routes and the
realisation within each energy area thus needs to be spatially and surface-wise adapted to any
surrounding shipping routes, as well as to other interests and guidance on particular
consideration for defence, cultural environment and nature values. The planning takes into
account different conditions regarding the realization of wind power based on depth, technology
and economic conditions. In the latter case, economic conditions, it is mainly about the
anchorage and foundation of the wind turbines, bottom-fixed and floating. In the short term,
bottom-fixed foundations are expected to have greater feasability, in terms of forecasts for
technology development and profitability for investment. While floating foundation wind turbines
are likely to be realizable only in the slightly longer term.
Within the territorial sea, the marine spatial plan coincides with municipal planning. Municipalities
point out areas of wind power in their comprehensive planning in accordance with the Planning
and Building Act (2010:900).
Achievement of objectives, national and municipal interests - energy
The assignment to expand the areas for energy extraction in the marine spatial plans is based on
the large electricity demand that the ongoing electrification and industrial transition entails, and
that there is currently a shortage of electricity production in southern Sweden. The marine spatial
plan's guidance is that it should be possible to use areas for energy production so that it
corresponds to a total of 120 TWh of annual electricity production in the three marine spatial
plans together. This means that the plan includes a certain margin based on adaptation needs
during realisation, for example with regard to the safety distance to shipping to be taken into
account.
According to the Marine Spatial Planning Regulation, marine spatial plans are to contribute to
national environmental, industrial and social objectives, of which energy policy objectives form
part. With the plan’s guidance and marine spatial planning objectives of creating the conditions
for regional development, as well as creating the conditions for energy transmission and
renewable energy extraction in the oceans, the plan’s guidance on energy contributes to the
national strategy for sustainable regional development (Government, 2021b). The strategy
includes a number of priorities and provides guidance for the implementation of the Ordinance on
Regional Development Work (2017:583). Marine spatial planning contributes to the prioritisation
of spatial planning, for equal opportunities for housing, work and welfare throughout the country,
as well as to the prioritisation of the climate and environmentally sustainable economy, based on
the plan’s guidance on offshore energy extraction. Through guidance on nature and particular
consideration for high nature values, the marine spatial plan also contributes to the strategy’s
priority of reducing climate impact, as well as preserving biodiversity and ecosystem services in a
changing climate. The plan’s guidance on energy also contributes to the national strategy’s
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priority on the establishment, production and use of renewable energy. This is significant for
households and the transformation of the industrial and transport sectors, important conditions for
competitive industries and employment, both directly and indirectly. For more information on
marine spatial planning objectives and national strategy for sustainable regional and its priorities,
see section 1.1, marine spatial planning and objectives of the marine spatial plans and section
6.3 Assessment to other plans and programmes.
Employment linked to offshore wind energy means on the one hand direct jobs during the
phases; the development, design and production of turbines and foundations, as well as the
design, construction, operation, maintenance and decommissioning of wind turbines, and more
indirectly through the supply of skills, as well as contributions to energy supply and other
business development, industrial conversion, maintenance and job creation. The contribution of
offshore wind to employment is difficult to quantify, but there are many links between offshore
wind and other parts of society and industry. The wind power industry is international and
employment is distributed internationally between countries, regionally and locally. The number of
jobs varies during the different phases, more jobs during the construction phase, lower but higher
proportion of regional jobs for operation and maintenance (Energy Agency 2024).
Energy supply is also classified by the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) as an
important social function. The societal function refers to the ability to meet society's electricity
supply needs. The function covers the production, transmission, distribution and trading of
electricity and activities to maintain or ensure the important societal function are examples,
control and monitoring as well as maintenance and repair of infrastructure. Important activities are
significant activities for society’s basic needs and security and constitute an important starting
point in the work on accident protection, crisis preparedness and civil defence (MSB, 2021).
There may also be a potential increased vulnerability under the current political security situation
in the Baltic Sea, regarding the challenges of protecting and guarding infrastructure far out at sea,
especially outside the Swedish territorial sea (Energy Agency, 2023a).
Recreation
Current situation, conditions and development
Recreation and tourism in and by the sea include nature, culture and landscape experiences and
various outdoor activities. Recreation is dependent on several conditions. It is about having
sufficient access to natural and cultural environment areas of good quality where it is possible to
exercise recreation. The areas also need to be accessible, both physically and experientially, to
the outdoor enthusiast who can be both local or out of town. The starting point for the use of
recreation in the marine spatial plan is based on national interest claims for recreation in
accordance with Chapter 3, Section 6 of the Environmental Code. National interest in mobile
recreation, Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code, which extends along the coast of
Bohuslän, Halland, the archipelago of Östergötland, Gotland, Södermanland and Stockholm, the
High Coast and Norrbotten, shall also be taken into account. In these areas, the interests of
tourism and recreation, primarily mobile recreation, shall be particularly taken into account in
development. National interest claims for recreation consist of areas that are considered to have
particularly good conditions for people to have enriching experiences in the natural environment
and areas used by many people. Other areas of national interest also have a bearing on
recreation, especially the coastal areas and archipelagos referred to in Chapter 4, Sections 3-4 of
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the Environmental Code, but also areas related to cultural environments include values for
recreation.
Outdoor activities and recreation occur to some extent in the marine spatial planning area, mainly
at embankments, but to a greater extent along the coasts. Popular outdoor activities at sea and in
coastal areas include boating, recreational fishing, coastal hiking, swimming, diving and
paragliding. The waterborne recreation consists mainly of recreational boats and recreational
fishing. Recreational craft are found in a total of 16 per cent of Swedish households and the total
number amounts to approximately 865,000 recreational craft nationally (Transportstyrelsen,
2021). Recreational shipping moves mainly inshore or near the coast. Self-adapted routes
outside fairways are common. Some pleasure boat traffic also occurs on the open sea, such as
sailing routes to and from larger islands or in the waters outside archipelagos, major cities and
pleasure boat ports (Sjöfartsverket & Transportstyrelsen, 2023). There are also important routes
to Denmark, Åland and Finland. In 2021, recreational fishing was carried out by approximately 1.5
million Swedish citizens between the ages of 16 and 80, of whom approximately 30 per cent of
the recreational fishing days took place in marine waters (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management & Statistics Sweden, 2022).
The land-based and coastal recreation can offer activities such as swimming, hiking and
camping. Areas that are designated as national interest for recreation are areas that can offer
qualities such as undisturbedness, low noise and views towards the horizon or interesting and
unique landscape views. Interest in recreation gained a boost during the pandemic years and is
expected to gain increased importance in the future. The tourism industry is also expected to
continue to increase after a downturn during the pandemic, and domestic tourism is an increasing
part of tourism in Sweden (Tillväxtverket, 2022). A healthy sea and functioning ecosystem
services are a prerequisite for functioning recreation, while recreation and tourism can have a
negative impact on the environment. Climate change can affect the conditions as a warmer
climate can threaten icing in the Gulf of Bothnia and shorten the tourist season in winter, while a
warmer climate can at the same time attract visitors. Either because it gets warmer in Sweden or
because Sweden is a cooler alternative to holiday in when other parts of the world get warmer.
Changes in sea temperature and salinity affect fish stocks and conditions for recreational fishing,
and in Skåne, for example, land subsidence together with sea level rise can contribute to
increased beach erosion. Extreme weather and the establishment of invasive species as a result
of climate change can also have a negative impact on recreation.
Environmental impacts and impacts linked to offshore wind energy
Recreation is a use in the marine spatial plan that can generate environmental effects and also
be affected by other uses. Outdoor activities need access to a healthy sea, but the activities can
also have a negative impact on the environment. Motorised traffic at sea contributes to emissions
and underwater noise, as well as various types of antifouling paint can contribute to pollution. The
construction of docks and ports affects valuable shallow ecosystems, and coastal recreation
causes littering. Further examples are the addition of nitrogen and phosphorus discharges from
holiday homes' wastewater that contribute to eutrophication. The effects of pressures vary
between both location and time (Moksnes et al., 2019; Törnqvist et al., 2020).
Coastal recreation and outdoor activities can be affected by marine spatial planning guidance on
uses in various ways, for example directly by restricting access to areas for the benefit of other
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uses, such as shipping, defence or energy extraction, but also indirectly through visual impact
and interference. For offshore wind turbines, the public is mainly concerned about the potential
negative impact on outdoor activities on the coast, despite the fact that they would rather see
offshore wind energy than on land (Prince et al., 2024). The distance between the coastline and
wind turbines is of great importance. However, the perception of the visual impact of wind power
is subjective and does not by definition have to be negative. Despite some negative perceptions
of the visual impact of offshore wind power, there are also positive perceptions of development
and contribution to sustainable development and energy independence. Research also suggests
that tourists who engage more in outdoor activities tend to have more positive views about wind
power (Prince et al., 2024, Bolin et al., 2021).
An energy area that overlaps with an recreation area risks restricting or displacing people from
staying there. This applies mainly to recreational boating and recreational fishing. An energy area
can be a real obstacle and increase the risk of recreational craft that, for example, need to enter
land quickly in bad weather conditions or other emergency situations or are forced to take
alternative routes. There are different rules for how close different boats may come to an offshore
wind farm, and there are also uncertainties linked to insurance issues and rescue at sea that are
relevant to consider in terms of consequences for recreational boat traffic. Indirect forms of
impact can be that the energy area interferes with the experience itself, either through visual
impact or interference from noise and increased traffic, but also linked more to direct impact in the
form of navigational interference from light and reflections. The extent of the impact can primarily
be influenced by the experiential values and natural conditions that exist in the area. Experiential
values that risk being particularly affected by energy establishment are pristineness (absence of
interventions in the landscape), stillness and silence, an appealing landscape image with a view
of the landscape and water, and whether the landscape is varied or unique. The degree of impact
may also vary depending on how exploited the landscape is in general. Most of the coastal nature
areas are currently rated to have very good sound environment classes (Noise forecast, 2024).
When offshore wind power is established, this classification can potentially be changed to an
inferior sound environment classification for coastal natural areas.
Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 10. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in relation to recreation during different phases, as well as
possible consideration measures for planning and planning that can reduce negative effects and consequences.
Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Facility Increased traffic Location and design of the wind farm, as well as aspects
such as height of the turbines.
Noise
Clear transit passages and safety distances
Operation Visual impact of wind turbines Custom obstacle lighting.
Visual impact of obstacle lighting
Limited availability for pleasure boats
Settlement Increased traffic No specific measures.
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Tourism
Current situation, conditions and development
The coastal tourism industry is a nationally significant industry and has enjoyed steady growth
since the early 2000s. Tourism’s contribution to Sweden’s GDP has been around 2.5 per cent for
a long period (Swedish Agency for Economic and Regional Growth, 2022). The pandemic years
had a negative impact on the tourism industry, but according to accommodation statistics, they
appear to have recovered to levels comparable to those in 2019 (Swedish Agency for Economic
and Regional Growth, u.y.). For many municipalities, the tourism industry accounts for an
important part of the local economy (Boverket, 2024). Compared to other industries, the tourism
industry employs more women, young people, the low-educated, low-income earners and people
with a foreign background (Sweco, 2023).
Marine tourism consists, for example, of trips by cruise ships or passenger ferries, overnight stays
either in coastal hotels or in holiday homes, as well as activities such as recreational fishing,
swimming, diving and boating (Söderquist et al., 2012). More than 50 per cent of the number of
guest nights in Sweden were spent in the coastal area (the Swedish Agency for Marine and
Water Management, 2023c), indicating that marine and coastal tourism is a significant part of the
national tourism industry. The tourism industry is the maritime industry that grows the most in
relation to other more industrially oriented maritime industries (Swedish Agency for Marine and
Water Management, 2023c), and it is also the maritime industry that is the largest in terms of
employment (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2018b). The coastal and
marine tourism industry is often linked to the natural environment, and is dependent on good
environmental status of the marine environment and the production of cultural ecosystem
services (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024a). Marine tourism is one of
the economic activities affected by a deteriorating marine environment. Good environmental
status in the sea is positive for the ocean's ability to deliver ecosystem services, which is a
prerequisite for people's experiences at the sea. In the socio-economic impact assessment of the
first action programme for the marine environment from 2015, an estimate was made showing
potential incremental benefits to the marine tourism sector of SEK 4.9 billion per year for a
scenario where good environmental status is achieved in the marine environment (Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2015c). The attractiveness of a coastal area for both
residents and visiting tourists is also dependent on the experiences of individuals, such as the
presence of cultural environments and visual aspects of nature and landscape (LTU, 2023).
Areas that in their entirety are of national interest are dealt with in Chapter 4 of the Environmental
Code (1998:808). Through Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code, large parts of the
Swedish coast are of national interest for mobile recreation and tourism, meaning that these
interests must be taken into account in particular when assessing the admissibility of
development companies or other interventions in the environment. There are points of contact for
aspects that are important for recreation and those that are important for the tourism, good
accessibility, good water quality and a rich plant and animal life are a couple of examples. Values
that form the basis of tourism are in many cases strongly linked to values for recreation but also
the landscape and the natural and cultural environment values that exist there, which means that
other national interests are also of importance to the tourism industry, such as Chapter 3, Section
6 of the Environmental Code concerning recreation, nature conservation and cultural environment
conservation. National interest claims relating to commercial fishing may also have some
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significance for the tourism industry linked to recreational fishing. Areas that are attractive to visit
are important for regional development through the tourism industry. In Sweden, there are
recreation policy objectives whose purpose is to support people's opportunities to spend time in
nature and exercise recreation. One of the ten objectives is of particular relevance to the tourism
sector, Sustainable regional growth and rural development. The goal means that outdoor
activities and tourism contribute to strengthening local and regional attractiveness and contribute
to strong, sustainable development and regional growth (Naturvårdsverket, 2023b). Clarifications
in the case concern, for example, an expanded market for nature and cultural experiences,
improved infrastructure and accessibility, and the promotion of sustainable business.
The tourism industry is expected to continue to grow and develop. An increased amount of
visitors can mean an increased pressure on the environment in the form of physical pressure,
disturbance of plant and animal life, littering and emissions to water and air. Digital and
technological development can both contribute to the pressure by increasing accessibility to
different areas, but also contribute to a lower impact by, for example, offering simulated
experiences that reduce the need for physical presence.
Climate change may affect the tourism industry. A warmer climate on the continent can increase
interest in the relatively cooler climate that Sweden can offer and thus account for increased
tourism (Tillväxtverket, 2024). While, for example, sea level rise and coastal erosion can generate
a negative impact on the tourism industry (Boverket, 2024).
Environmental effects and impacts linked to offshore wind power
Tourism can, in different ways and to different degrees, have a negative environmental impact
through activities that generate marine litter, physical loss, physical or biological disturbance,
nutrient inputs and emissions to air and water.
Offshore wind power can affect the hospitality industry and tourism by creating a visual impact.
This can be perceived as negative, especially in areas that are considered to be scenic, where
free horizons and views towards the open sea are distinctive. Another visual aspect is light
pollution, especially during the night. The extent of the visual impact depends to a large extent on
the visibility of the wind turbines. According to a research review done by Luleå University of
Technology to investigate the effects of offshore wind power on the tourism industry, it is
concluded that a distance of 35 kilometers should be enough to minimize predominantly negative
experiences from the visual impact of offshore wind power (LTU, 2023). Whether the impact is
actually negative or possibly positive depends on the perception of individuals. According to a
report from Vindval, which examined the impact of wind power on nature tourism and experience
values, wind turbines generally do not deter tourists from visiting a destination (Prince et al.,
2024). The results showed the importance of previous opinions about wind power and how it
affects attitudes, feelings and behavioral intentions around areas with visible wind turbines. The
study further suggests that tourists who engage in a physically demanding outdoor activity are
less likely to notice the wind turbines. The results are based on studies on onshore wind power
and a research project to better understand how offshore wind power affects tourism has begun
and will be presented in early 2027.
Previous studies on offshore wind power show that some perceive wind turbines as elegant and
as positive for sustainable development (LTU, 2023). Factors such as age, level of education and
attitude towards offshore wind power can affect an individual's perception. Furthermore, those
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with previous experience of wind farms tend to be more positive. There are also examples of how
wind power establishments have become part of the local tourism industry, with, for example, a
tour boat out to the wind farm (Glasson et al. 2021). Studies have also shown that people who
engage in recreational fishing have positive experiences of wind farms, the explanation for this is
that they are displacing commercial fishing (LTU, 2023). Further studies conducted on offshore
wind have shown that visual impacts from nearby wind power do not affect the choice of holiday
location for a majority of respondents (Scottish government, 2022; Teisl et al., 2018). However, a
few indicated that they would choose not to visit an area built with offshore wind power. Studies
have also been able to show that a majority of those who respond that they would refrain from
visiting one beach because of visible wind turbines would choose to visit another beach instead
(LTU, 2023). From a national perspective, such relocation does not therefore constitute a
negative impact on the tourism industry, but on the other hand there is a risk for individual
businesses from a local perspective. At the same time, the establishment of offshore wind power
is expected to lead to increased local and regional energy production, which is positive for the
regional industry as a whole, but also for parts of the tourism industry.
The marine spatial plans do not directly guide the use of tourism, but there is guidance for
outdoor activities and cultural environments, which also concern areas that are important for the
tourism industry. Furthermore, there is a general analysis of the potential impact of the marine
spatial plan on the tourism industry in each marine spatial plan area. Through an ecosystem
services analysis, it is also made visible how the environmental effects highlighted in the
assessment can in turn affect ecosystem services that are also of importance for economic and
social interests. The tourism industry is an example of such an interest, in which cultural
ecosystem services in particular are important.
Defence
Defence is activities that are needed to prepare Sweden for war. Defence consists of military
activities (military defence) and civilian activities (civil defence). Civil and military defence are
mutually reinforcing. Civil defence refers to the civilian activities that authorities, municipalities,
regions, individuals, companies, voluntary defence organisations and civil society, among others,
take to prepare Sweden for war. Military defence refers to the activities carried out by the Armed
Forces with the support of defence authorities, parts of the voluntary defence organisations, as
well as parts of the defence industry and other relevant parts of the business sector, in order to
act as a deterrent to war and to prepare Sweden for war.
State of play and environmental impact – military defence
The Swedish Armed Forces is the sectoral authority for the military component of the defence in
accordance with ordinance (1998:896) on land management and shall therefore appoint national
interest claims for areas needed for the military installations of the defence (according to Chapter
3, Section 9 of the Environmental Code). These areas include shooting and training grounds,
airports, marine exercise areas and technical systems and facilities that need to be protected
from influences that may restrict the activities of the armed forces. The Swedish Armed Forces'
claims also include the activities of the Swedish Defence Radio Establishment, the Swedish
Defence Research Agency, the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration and the Swedish
Fortifications Agency. There are also national interest claims that are covered by secrecy and are
classified and therefore cannot be reported on an open map or in any other way. The Swedish
Armed Forces' main task is to defend Sweden and allied states against armed attack on the basis
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of collective defence within NATO (Regulation 2007:1266). Furthermore, the Armed Forces shall
promote national security, support civilian defence activities and identify external threats to
Sweden.
The activities of the military defence can affect areas in the marine spatial plans, but it is also an
interest that can be greatly affected by wind power installations. Military exercises conducted in
designated areas, both below and above the water surface, cause pollution by the introduction of
metals into the marine environment. In addition to physical impact, firing and explosive drills, as
well as to some extent aircraft and ship drills, cause underwater noise. The impact on marine life
varies; during spawning periods for fish and breeding and incubation periods for birds, the impact
on wildlife may be more severe. However, the Swedish Armed Forces have a need to exercise
even at these times and have therefore developed a marine biological calendar to be able to plan
exercises with regard to marine life.
Impact linked to offshore wind energy
In terms of the impact of energy expansion, there are both positive and negative potential
consequences. For the Armed Forces, security of energy supply is of great importance, and
robust energy supply is also one of NATO's basic requirements. Energy supply is thus relevant
for the defence, and even the military part of the defence is expected to electrify parts of its
operations in the longer term (Nykvist & Mårtensson, 2021). The open national interest claims
that are designated for the military part of the defence in marine areas can be, for example,
marine shooting areas, blasting areas and marine exercise areas that are used to maintain and
develop the capability for armed combat at sea. Marine exercise activities need to be able to be
carried out in different sea areas with different hydrological and topographical qualities, such as
varying depths, bottom formations, turbidity and salinity which can affect navigation, visibility and
other aspects. There needs to be a variation in areas corresponding to different types of
conditions in Sweden's territory, which also includes weather conditions and proximity to coast
and land.
Each designated energy area constitutes a unique restriction on the military defence's ability to
use both the situation and the natural conditions, which needs to be assessed by the responsible
experts in a holistic perspective. Furthermore, large parts of the marine exercise areas are also
used as air exercise areas, which means that freedom from obstacles is a prerequisite.
Consequences for the military defence of wind power installations in sea areas also include a
challenge regarding the safety of both own operations and civilians staying within or near the
exercise area.
The national interests that are classified in accordance with Chapter 15, Section 2 of the Public
Access to Information and Secrecy Act (SFS 2009:400) may include infrastructure relating to
signals intelligence, telecommunications and surveillance of air and sea space. Wind power
installations may affect technical systems such as reconnaissance radars, weather radars, radio
communications, signal reconnaissance and underwater sensors (Odell et al., 2022). (The term
"military part" also includes civilian authorities that support the Armed Forces, such as the
Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), the Swedish Defence Radio Establishment (FRA), the
Swedish Fortifications Agency and the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration (FMV)).
The consequences for the defence's operations of an individual energy area can vary between
very serious damage to the fact that the consequences are so mild that coexistence is possible
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under specific conditions and with certain consideration measures. The Swedish Defence
Research Agency (FOI) has, on behalf of the Swedish Armed Forces and the Swedish Energy
Agency, proposed measures that could lead to increased coexistence between wind power and
military defence activities; the measures fall within the categories of strategic planning and
geographical location of wind power in areas that do not affect the military component of defence
(Odell et al., 2022). The report presents international examples of consideration measures for
coexistence that are not applicable in a Swedish context at present. The Armed Forces’
assessment is that a developed planning process is the most appropriate option to support
coexistence between the Armed Forces’ interests and offshore wind energy development
(Swedish Armed Forces, 2022).
Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 11. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in relation to defence during different phases, as well as possible
consideration measures that can reduce negative effects and consequences.
Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Facility Increased traffic Adapt to the activities of the defence
Operation Limits airspace and Possibility for air traffic controllers to regulate the operation of
affects technical wind turbines
equipment
Development of technical solutions in the Armed Forces'
systems, and wind turbines.
Settlement Increased traffic Adapt to the activities of the defence
Civil defence and the impact of offshore wind power
Sweden's civil preparedness is about the ability to prevent and manage disasters, crisis
situations, danger of and war. The capacity is created throughout society, by authorities,
municipalities, regions, businesses and volunteers in the population. The Swedish Civil
Contingencies Agency (MSB) is responsible for identifying claims of national interest. The
national interests of the civil defence can complement other national interests where, for example,
a port that is not particularly important in terms of, for example, commercial fishing, can have a
strategic and important role in the event of war.
Offshore wind power can directly or indirectly affect the conditions of civil defence in various
ways. Access to energy is a prerequisite for Sweden's preparedness. Offshore wind energy is an
important component of the energy transition and has the potential, through its spread, to create
a secure energy supply that contributes to a stronger civil defence.
The proposed energy expansion could also have an impact on the preparedness of the civil
protection sector and on the protection of civilians, in particular at sea. The Swedish Civil
Contingencies Agency is the sector responsible authority and the preparedness sector also
includes the Coast Guard, the Swedish Maritime Administration, the Swedish Police Authority,
SMHI, the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority and the county administrative boards. Offshore
wind turbines and other fixed installations are physical barriers to shipping, which can increase
the risk of accidents as well as possibly complicate rescue operations in the vicinity of the wind
farms. At present, it has not been investigated how an individual park could affect the civil
defence related to sea rescue operations. The design of the park, the height and distance
between wind turbines are factors that affect the possibility of carrying out rescue operations.
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Furthermore, there are uncertainties that large-scale wind farms are a new phenomenon in
Swedish waters, knowledge, skills and experience regarding how the parks affect locally, how to
navigate around them and where it is safe to anchor when needed.
The wind turbines may affect ocean currents (study on the hydrological impact of wind power is
ongoing in collaboration with SMHI, delivered in autumn 2024), which in turn could affect how
chemicals or oil spread in the event of an accident.
Risks linked to offshore wind energy and the security situation
The security situation is influenced by several different factors, of which energy is an integral part.
The Swedish Armed Forces notes a complex external development and an uncertain threat
picture in various domains. Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine has affected the security
situation and made events more unpredictable, including rapid technological developments and
the cyber-information environment, which pose new security policy challenges.
Energy is an integral part of geopolitics and a shift from fossil to renewable energy provides in
some respects more secure energy access, but also creates new dependencies and security
risks. Just as fossil energy sources have been used as a tool for political pressure, offshore wind
power can also create new dependencies that can affect the security situation and create
corresponding geopolitical power struggles as those associated with fossil resources.
Sweden's entry into NATO places new demands on capacity expansion and capability
development that could be affected by large-scale offshore energy expansion. The Armed Forces
are facing the most extensive rehabilitation in 50 years, which means that access to a stable
energy supply is essential, but also that security risks and obstacles to development are
minimized. Large-scale offshore wind power can pose both obstacles and security risks, and the
consequences of proposed energy areas from a security policy perspective need to be analysed
and assessed by the Swedish Armed Forces and other relevant authorities.
In the construction of offshore wind turbines, exploitation of the seabed takes place, both when
anchoring the turbines and when cabling to land. According to the Swedish Armed Forces, the
exploitation of the seabed poses increased security risks as there are several types of critical
infrastructure (Swedish Armed Forces, 2024). Digitalization has made society very vulnerable to
disruptions in electricity and IT networks, sabotage of infrastructure such as power cables, fibre
cables and underground pipelines can have serious consequences and also constitute strategic
targets for attackers.
The Swedish Armed Forces sees risks that a significant part of Swedish energy production, with
associated infrastructure and transmission capacity, may in the future take place outside Swedish
territory (Swedish Armed Forces, 2024). Fourteen energy areas are listed in whole or in part in
the territorial sea and ten areas in Sweden's exclusive economic zone. Areas in the territorial sea
and the exclusive economic zone account for 20% and 80% respectively of the total area used for
energy extraction in the proposal. The expansion of energy production in the Swedish exclusive
economic zone poses challenges and difficulties, as well as for other critical infrastructure, when
it comes to protecting and monitoring this infrastructure.
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Shipping
Current situation, conditions and development
Shipping is an important part of Sweden's transport infrastructure and a significant engine for the
country's industry and economy. For domestic freight transport, shipping accounts for about one
third of transport measured in tonne-kilometres. The dominance of shipping is even more
pronounced in foreign trade, where around 90 per cent of export goods are transported at least
partly by ship (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2024). It plays a significant
role in Sweden's trade and accounts for about 70 per cent of Sweden's foreign trade
(Sjöfartsverket, u.å.). As an example, in 2023 160 million tonnes of cargo were handled over
Swedish quays, 87 % of all cargo handling in Swedish ports concerned international cargo
(Traffic Analysis 2024).
Passenger traffic is also significant. Annually, ships and ferries transport people to and from
Swedish ports and in 2023 approximately 22 million passengers travelled from Sweden to a
foreign port (Traffic Analysis 2024). Traffic is vital for both international connections and domestic
transport between islands and the mainland.
Maritime transport has a broader meaning beyond transport, based on aspects such as:
• Security of supply; It is critical for the civilian defence’s supply chain needs and
constitutes an important societal function in both everyday life and crisis (Swedish Civil
Contingencies Agency 2021).
• Economic importance; The maritime industry has annual sales of approximately SEK 85
billion and accounts for approximately 1.7 per cent of total net sales in the Swedish
business sector.
• Regional development and employment: Shipping is concentrated in the metropolitan
regions of Gothenburg, Stockholm and Malmö/Helsingborg, where it serves as an
important industry and employer. For coastal municipalities, ports and shipping are often
a central part of the economy. This includes, among other things, cargo handling and
supply chains, such as for raw material-intensive export industries.
• Regional development and accessibility. Shipping is also important in terms of
accessibility, accommodation and service. For example, freight and passenger ferry
services are important for tourism and commuting, within and between municipalities and
in some cases also between countries.
• Shipping also has the potential to become an important part of a long-term sustainable
transport system.
Shipping is thus of national interest and national interest claims for shipping are identified by the
Swedish Transport Administration. National interest in shipping includes both ports and shipping
lanes that are considered to be of national importance. The vessels operate mainly in an
extensive network of shipping lanes and routes, as well as in adjacent areas based on suitability,
for example, depending on weather conditions and destination.
Gulf of Bothnia
For the plan area, maritime traffic is slightly less intensive, compared to other plan areas, but
still frequent and important traffic to ports and shipping routes takes place within the plan
area and between Sweden and Finland. For example,Norrland's industries rely heavily on
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maritime transport to reach consumers in Sweden and abroad, with extensive traffic to both
Swedish and Finnish ports. Maritime transport in the plan area, especially in the North Bothnian
Sea and the North Kvarken, faces several challenges:
Navigation conditions
Limited manoeuvrability due to depth conditions and narrow passages. Multiple Traffic Separation
Systems (TSS) to manage complex waters.
Winter conditions and winter navigation
During normal winters, the entire Bothnian Bay and large parts of the Bothnian Sea, including the
North Kvarken, freeze. Ice formation does not usually extend to the entire southern part of the
Gulf of Bothnia during normal winters. Winter conditions place high demands on the adaptability
of shipping and icebreaking operations. Ice formation in the Gulf of Bothnia requires flexibility for
shipping, with the need for large areas and alternative shipping routes. Extensive wind farms can
pose a particular challenge for winter navigation, as they can limit the necessary flexibility. This is
particularly relevant for freight volumes to and from ports in northern Sweden (Ringsberg et al.,
2024).
There are uncertainties about how offshore wind farms can affect the nature of sea ice and ice
formation, and potentially indirectly affect winter navigation and icebreaking. Indirect effects
based on the impact on winter navigation, icebreaking and aggravating operations can lead to
cost increases. These can affect both the shipping industry and related industries, as well as
public activities including costs for maintaining shipping lanes and transport functions (Ringsberg
et al., 2024).
Baltic
Shipping in the Baltic Sea is extensive, with several important ports along the coast but above all
several international shipping routes. The ship traffic goes to the mainland coast, Gotland and
further north, east and south, to both Swedish and foreign destinations. West of Gotland, traffic
with Swedish destinations dominates, while international traffic to and from the Gulf of Finland
and the Baltics, but which often does not dock in Sweden, is more prominent south and east of
the island.
For vessel traffic in and out of the Baltic Sea, there are three alternative sea routes: Öresund, the
Kiel Canal and the Great Belt. The busiest maritime route is the Öresund route, which runs
through the southern Baltic Sea along the southern coast of Sweden in traffic separation systems.
Traffic through Öresund is limited by Flintrännan's minimum depth of about 8 meters at mean
water, with a maximum recommended draught of about 7 meters. The fairway is also limited by
the height limit under the Öresund Bridge, which is 55 metres above Flintrännan. Larger and
deeper vessels therefore mainly use the route through the Great Belt, which has a higher height
limit of 65 metres.
Skagerrak/Kattegat
Maritime traffic in Skagerrak/Kattegat is of great importance for Swedish foreign trade, with two of
the country's largest ports: Port of Gothenburg and Port of Brofjorden. The Port of Gothenburg
handles almost 30 per cent of Sweden's foreign trade and accounts for half of the country's total
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container traffic (Port of Gothenburg, u.y.). The marine spatial planningarea is traversed by
several shipping routes;
- From Oslo in the north to Kattegat in the south
- In to the coast and out past Skagen towards Skagerrak/Kattegat
- Through Kattegat and Öresundto and from the Baltic Sea
Kattegat is particularly important for maritime traffic as it is one of only two routes into the Baltic
Sea for large vessels. However, this traffic does not go mainly to Swedish ports, but to other
countries in the Baltic Sea. There are shipping routes throughout the sea area, both on the
Swedish and Danish sides. In the southern part of the area, outside Stora and Lilla Middelgrund,
ships must choose between Öresund and Great Belt. Both of these passages limit the height and
draught of the ships, with the Great Belt Bridge as a special height limit.
To increase safety in the shallow waters of Kattegat, new traffic separation regulations were
introduced in 2020 on both sides of the offshore banks, following a decision by the International
Maritime Organization in 2018. (International Maritime Organization, 2018).
For further information on spatial analyses of shipping, see the Lighthouse report Maritime
Interest in Sea Space in the Light of Increased Wind Power Expansion (Hjerpe Olausson, J. et
al., 2024).
Environmental and other impacts
Maritime transport contributes to several environmental pressures affecting both the marine
environment and the atmosphere:
- Emissions to air and water
o Fuel combustion involves both emissions of pollutant gases such as sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, as well as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases. International shipping is a rapidly growing source of emissions, and the need
to reduce its climate and environmental impact is today the strongest driving force
behind technological development in the sector (Maritime Administrations, u.y.)
o Other consequences of the operation of shipping are operational oil spills, chemicals,
as well as discharges from kitchens, toilets and cleaning of cargo tanks.
o Ships that also use flue gas cleaners (so-called scrubbers) to reduce their emissions
of sulphur oxides to air have been linked to water pollution and more and more
countries have imposed restrictions on these in recent years (Lunde Hermansson et
al., 2023).
- Noise
o Marine life is affected by the underwater noise caused by ships' engines, propellers
and sonar, as it interferes, among other things, with the communication between
organisms.
- Spread of alien, including invasive species
o Furthermore, there is a risk that ships spread alien species via ballast water and hull
fouling, species that can establish themselves in Swedish waters and outcompete
native species with potentially major consequences for ecosystems.
- Bottom impact
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o Shipping also affects the seabed adjacent to shipping lanes and ports, where
dredging and dumping of dredged materials is ongoing.
Maritime transport is an efficient mode of transport with lower CO2 emissions per unit transported
compared to land transport. Despite this, it also poses significant environmental challenges.
Transport policy objectives aimed at promoting energy-efficient transport can create conflicting
objectives in terms of increased sea-based transport work and impact on the marine environment
(Fridell, et al., 2024). To address these challenges, it is important to develop strategies that
balance efficiency and sustainability in shipping, which may include investments in cleaner fuels
and technologies to reduce the negative environmental impact.
Marine spatial plan guidance on shipping
The marine spatial plan's guidance for shipping is based on national interests and is largely in line
with established shipping lanes and shipping routes. Guidance for other uses, such as energy
extraction, can potentially affect and complicate shipping activities.
Although the marine spatial plan does not explicitly provide guidelines for safety zones, it stresses
the importance of taking these into account on the basis of the specific conditions of each energy
area. It is generally considered that shipping and offshore energy production can coexist,
provided that the right conditions are created and that the safety of shipping is prioritised. This
includes taking into account safety distances to maintain maritime safety as well as complying
with both national and international regulations at sea.
Maritime safety is key to preventing accidents at sea and minimising the environmental impact on
populations, animals and plant life. The need for safety zones and safety distances is specific to
each location and depends on several factors, including spatial conditions, the nature of the
fairway and its use. Factors such as traffic intensity, type and size of vessels and the direction of
the fairway in relation to wind farms affect these needs. Establishing offshore activities, such as
wind power, requires a thorough examination and permit decision that includes specifications for
consideration and safety distances. This is necessary to enable safe coexistence with shipping.
To this end, the Swedish Maritime Administration and the Swedish Transport Agency have
developed specific recommendations (Sjöfartsverket & Transportstyrelsen, 2023). For more
information on the legal conditions, see the Swedish Energy Agency’s report 2023:12 (Energy
Agency, 2023a).
National objectives, regional development and maritime transport
The maritime spatial plans shall contribute to the achievement of national environmental
objectives and integrate industrial policy and social objectives, of which transport policy objectives
form part of the whole. By promoting the objective of marine spatial planning to create the
conditions for regional development and sustainable shipping, the plans offer guidance for
shipping and other uses, such as energy, which supports the National Strategy for Sustainable
Regional Development (Government, 2021b). This strategy covers several priorities and is
implemented in accordance with the Ordinance on Regional Development Work (2017:583).
In particular, the marine spatial planning contributes to the priority of ‘accessibility through
sustainable transport systems’, where guidance on shipping and other uses has a direct impact
on maritime transport supply. This is of great importance to both people and businesses
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throughout the country. The strategy stresses the importance of coordinating activities and
transport infrastructure at local, regional and national level. For further information on marine
spatial planning objectives and the national strategy for sustainable regional development and its
priorities, see Section 6.3.
Maritime transport is also classified by the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) as an
essential activity. These activities are essential to meet society's basic needs and security, which
constitute an important basis for the work on accident protection, crisis preparedness and civil
defence. Activities that maintain or ensure these vital societal functions include ships, ports,
pilotage, icebreaking, ship brokerage, and the operation and planning of fairways (MSB, 2021).
Table 12. Shows the type of impacts from offshore wind in relation to shipping during different phases, as well as possible
consideration measures that can reduce negative impacts and impacts.
Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Facility Increased traffic Clear security measures
Operation May affect technical equipment Clear security measures
Increased collision risk Development of technical solutions, complementary equipment
in wind farm
Settlement Increased traffic Clear security measures
Commercial fishing
Swedish fishing is conducted in the Baltic Sea including the Gulf of Bothnia and
Skagerrak/Kattegat, and periodically also in Skagerrak/Kattegat and the Norwegian Sea. In the
Gulf of Bothnia, commercial fishing is seasonally characterised by ice-free periods. Both the Gulf
of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and Skagerrak/Kattegat have different physical and ecological
conditions that affect the presence of marine animal species such as fish and shellfish, which in
turn helps to influence how professional fishing looks in the areas. In the Gulf of Bothnia and the
Baltic Sea, the composition of species changes from south to north as a result of decreasing
salinity, which means that the proportion of marine species decreases. Several commercially
important fish species, such as herring and sprat, are found in all three sea areas, while others,
such as Northern prawn and Norway lobster, are only found in the marine spatial planning area of
Skagerrak/Kattegat.
Fishing also varies over time depending on the species available. While cod was a common catch
in the 1980s, stocks in the Baltic Sea and Kattegat are now at a very low level, which has affected
the regulation of fisheries. For example, directed fishing for cod in the Baltic Sea has been
temporarily closed for several years. Environmental impacts on fish stocks, such as oxygen-free
bottoms in the Baltic Sea and climate change, also affect the opportunities for fishing today and in
the future.
Swedish commercial fishing includes bottom trawling, pelagic trawling and passive fishing with
nets and cages. Commercial fishing is varied, with larger vessels mostly fishing with trawls and
smaller vessels with cages, traps and nets (see Figure 21). Fishing varies both geographically
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and over time. Small-scale fishing is normally carried out in more limited areas close to the coast,
while larger vessels move over large areas in and beyond the Swedish territorial sea and
economic zone. The conditions for fishing are affected by the season, but also by the
development of fish stocks and fishing regulations. The total landing volumes and removals of
fish and shellfish from commercial fisheries are governed by the EU's Common Fisheries Policy,
decided fishing quotas and national regulations. National interest claims for commercial fishing
include areas considered important for commercial fishing's access to catch areas, areas
important for spawning and nursery areas, as well as ports for landing and service. In both the
Swedish territorial sea and the exclusive economic zone, there is also extensive fishing from
other EU countries' vessels.
Figure 21. Professional fisheries 2012-2021: Compilation of annual economic landing values for Swedish fisheries for the period
2012-2021: Passive fishing (top left); Pelagic trawl fisheries (upper right); Demersal/bottom trawl fisheries (bottom trawl) (bottom
left).
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Commercial fishing in the Gulf of Bothnia is most concentrated near the coast outside the marine
spatial planning area, and in the Southern Bothnian Sea. Fishing is clearly seasonal, as the area
is ice-covered for parts of the year. Economically important species are vendace, herring and
salmon, where fishing for vendace takes place closer to the coast (outside the marine spatial plan
area). Finnish herring fishing is also taking place in the outer embankment areas (Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).
Fishing in the Baltic Sea's marine spatial plan area accounts for a large proportion of Swedish
commercial fishing in terms of both value and quantity of catches. The main species (2018-2022)
are sprat and herring, following the decline of the cod stock. The area uses both passive and
active gear, with the exception of Öresund, where fishing is conducted exclusively with passive
gear (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).
In the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat, commercial fishing is varied, with the
economically most important species being Northern prawn and Norway lobster. There is also
mixed fishing for species such as haddock and saithe (bottom living), mackerel, herring and sprat
(pelagic).
Environmental Impacts and Surface Claim
Fishing affects the size and structure of fish populations, both for the species targeted and those
caught unintentionally. Further other species and ecosystems are indirectly affected through
interactions in the food chain. Fishing with passive fishing gear can affect birds and marine
mammals trapped in nets, even gear lost in the sea creates problems as they continue to catch
animals long after they are lost. Work is under way to prevent this, for example with regard to wire
material in cages.
Bottom trawling affects the marine environment through species harvesting, by-catch, and
physical damage to the benthic habitats. Pelagic trawling is associated with the same types of
pressure as bottom trawling, with the exception of physical bottom impact. Emissions and
underwater noise are also among the effects of fishing. Action to reduce physical disturbance is
under way through the development of regulations and technical adaptations that reduce, for
example, by-catch and physical disturbance from trawling. The establishment of marine protected
areas with fully or partially regulated fisheries are measures that can be expected to lead to
increased protection of vulnerable benthic habitats and nursery areas for fish and other marine
organisms. Measures to meet environmental quality standards on biodiversity and physical
disturbance of the seabed are a driver contributing to enhanced protection of specific species and
benthic habitats. The ongoing development of fishing gear and methodology to reduce the
environmental impact of fishing is expected to continue, such as the development of selective
gear to reduce by-catch, as well as techniques to minimise damage to benthic habitats (Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management 2016c).
Climate change is also expected to affect marine environments and commercial fish stocks and
their distribution, and by extension fishing, through increased water temperature, altered wave,
current and salinity conditions, reduced ice cover and reduced pH in the oceans by 2040 (the
Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2025).
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Achievement of objectives, national and municipal interests
The marine spatial plan's guidance on the use of commercial fishing is largely based on national
interest claims. According to the Marine Spatial Planning Ordinance, marine spatial plans are to
contribute to national environmental, economic and social objectives, of which objectives related
to commercial fishing form part of the marine spatial plan’s guidance and the planning objective of
creating the conditions for regional development, as well as sustainable fishing. The plan’s
guidance on commercial fishing should also relate to the national strategy for sustainable regional
development (Government, 2021b). The strategy includes several priorities and the Ordinance on
Regional Development Work (2017:583) contains provisions on regional development work and
the involvement of state authorities in that work. The marine spatial plan’s guidance on the use of
commercial fishing relates to the priority ‘Innovation and renewal as well as entrepreneurship and
entrepreneurship across the country – A competitive, circular and bio-based and climate and
environmental sustainable economy’. Guidance on nature use and particular consideration for
high nature values can have positive effects on the fish resource, thereby favouring sustainable
fishing in the longer term, on the basis that the guidance can contribute to maintaining important
ecosystem services on which commercial fishing depends, see Chapter 2.2.6. Proposal for new
areas with particular consideration for high nature values. For more information on the national
strategy for sustainable regional and its priorities, see Chapter 6.3 Assessment against other
plans and programmes.
Food security is classified as an important social function by the Swedish Civil Contingencies
Agency (MSB). Fishing is included as a function of primary production and refers to the ability to
produce livestock and primary production of feed. Examples of essential activities include
activities and facilities that are necessary to maintain the production of food-producing animals
and fishing. Important activities are important activities for society's basic needs and security and
constitute an important starting point in the work with protection against accidents, crisis
preparedness and civil defence (MSB 2021).
Port activities are important for maintaining the activity of commercial fishing. Some ports are
designated as national interest claims for commercial fishing. Port operations can also be a
municipal interest. Commercial fishing is also important for other municipal interests such as
employment, the opportunity to live and work in coastal communities, cultural and social values,
local identity, tourism, and the preservation of fishing for the future (Waldo S. & Lovén I. 2019).
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Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 13. Shows the type of impacts from offshore wind power in relation to commercial fishing during different phases, as well
as possible consideration measures that can reduce negative impacts and impacts.
Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Phase
Facility Increased traffic Clear security measures
Keeping the areas not worked in open for fishing
Operation Affects fishing opportunities Location of turbines
Development of fishing gear or method depending on the type
of fishery concerned
Settlement Increased traffic Clear security measures
Keeping the areas not worked in open for fishing
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Impact assessment of marine spatial plan for the
Gulf of Bothnia
Impact on population and health
The most relevant aspects of the plan to consider when investigating effects on the population
and human health are guidance on energy use, sand extraction and guidance on changing
mileage for shipping. The new plan proposal has not changes in regards to sand extraction and
maritime routes, and the assessment for these uses presented in the sustainability assessment of
decided marine spatial plans in 2019 is still up to date (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management, 2019b). The conclusion of that assessment is that neither the proposed sand
extraction in the Bothnian Bay nor the guidance on shipping posed any health risks to humans.
When it comes to energy areas, the assessment is that the negative health effects that can arise
from visual impact and noise are relatively small, with marginal negative effects on the health of
the population. The potential for positive health effects from renewable energy production and
thereby reduced emissions is also assessed as relatively small. This is because these effects are
indirect and do not have a local effect in the same way as visual effects.
Visual impact and noise
Regarding guidance on energy production, and offshore wind establishment, there are various
aspects that can have an impact on human health. There is only one permit for offshore wind
power in the Gulf of Bothnia. The proposed marine spatial plan will guide a relatively large
expansion of offshore wind power in the Gulf of Bothnia's marine spatial plan area, and several
energy areas are located so close to the coast that they will be visible from land. Visual impact
from both the wind turbines and associated obstacle lighting risks disturbing people both during
the day and at night. However, it is not established to what extent this can lead to direct health
problems, and there is also a subjective aspect where different individuals are disturbed to
different degrees (see section 2.1 Impact on population and health). Effects and influences of
obstacle lighting may need to be investigated especially in the Gulf of Bothnia in relation to the
natural conditions, such as terrain and how light is reflected by ice and snow during the winter
months. The effect of shading is not considered problematic due to the distance from land.
Offshore wind power generates noise, both audible noise and infrasound. Modelling for noise
dispersion in various project applications shows that the overall noise level generally decreases
to 35 dBA within 5 kilometres of the outer boundary of wind farms. Noise modelling is often based
on a worst-case scenario for sound dispersion, where the calculations assume that there is no
natural attenuation of the sound. In the Gulf of Bothnia, there is no proposed energy extraction
area closer than 5 kilometres from coastal settlements (see Figure 22 below). People living in
coastal areas are therefore not considered to be at risk of experiencing harmful or particularly
disturbing noise levels when establishing offshore wind power in proposed energy areas. Just as
for obstacle lighting, there is a need to examine in more detail how sound spreads in winter
conditions in the Gulf of Bothnia.
In the Bay of Gävle there is a cluster of energy areas which means that the risk of cumulative
impact increases. Visual influences, and effects such as noise and obstacle lighting, become
more noticeable and intense. These effects may be limited to some extent by consideration
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measures. At the same time, it is not likely that all the energy areas in the marine spatial plan will
be built on, but rather a number of energy areas and with a certain geographical spread. It would
provide a distribution of negative impacts on population and health across the entire marine
spatial planning area, see section 3.5 Overall assessment for reasoning on potential distribution
of cumulative impacts.
Maritime safety and risk
The proposed energy areas may lead to reduced safety of navigation due to fixed installations
adjacent to fairways. This can lead to an increased risk of shipping accidents, as well as possibly
complicate remediation and rescue work that can indirectly pose a risk to human health.
Reducing Health Hazardous Emissions
There are potential indirect health benefits of offshore wind energy. This is especially true if the
produced renewable energy replaces fossil energy use with health-damaging air emissions. As it
is uncertain where the energy from proposed energy areas will be used, it is difficult to assess the
magnitude of this effect. Effects on air emissions and climate benefits are indirect and long-term
effects of marine spatial plans that in the long term are expected to contribute positively to human
health. In a shorter time perspective, however, local emissions may increase with civil works and
increased traffic, or diversion of ship traffic, this is transitory and the net effect of building wind
power is positive in terms of the potential to replace fossil-based energy carriers, thereby leading
to reduced emissions of greenhouse gases and other airborne pollutants.
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Figure 22. Shows the distance of energy areas to urban areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Source: Statistics Sweden, 2020.
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Effects on protected animal or plant species and
biodiversity
Birds
In the marine spatial planning area of the Gulf of Bothnia, the greatest risks of impact on birds are
linked to the areas around Finngrunden and North Kvarken. In both cases, the risk of impact on
migratory birds is greatest.
Finngrunden is of great regional importance for resting and wintering seabirds, several of which
are known to be very sensitive to disturbance. When it comes to migratory birds, the autumn
migration past Finngrunden and the southern Bothnian Sea is particularly extensive, with over
100 species and one million individuals of larger birds. In comparison, studies show that the
spring migration includes just under 70 species. Many migratory species are red-listed. In addition
to the passage of larger birds, a presumed very large number of small birds migrate. For species
such as the bean goose, whooper swan, black-throated loon and red-throated loon, a significant
proportion of the populations are estimated to pass through the area from breeding areas in
north-eastern Scandinavia and north-western Russia. For the subspecies taiga geese, the central
migration route for the entire world population over this area is found.
Energy areas B152 and B156 in the Southern Bothnian Sea pose a high risk of impact on
migratory birds and a medium risk of impact on wintering birds, mainly long-tailed ducks and red-
throated loons. Area B149 is considered to have a medium risk of impact on migratory and
wintering birds.
Energy areas B164 and B142 are considered to have a medium risk for migratory birds and a low
risk for wintering birds.
The species red-throated loon and long-tailed duck are typical species of sublittoral sandbanks
and reefs within the Natura 2000 site Finngrunden. The species shall be protected and allowed to
remain in existing viable populations. The conservation of species within the Natura 2000 network
must also be seen in a long-term perspective where the conditions must be in place for the range
of different species to change over time. Ongoing climate change caused by human emissions of
greenhouse gases will result in sharp shifts in ranges that are very difficult to predict more
accurately.
Along the coast there are important breeding, resting and wintering areas for seabirds, which risk
being negatively affected by wind power expansion in the proposed energy areas B152 and
B156. Black guillemot, lesser black-backed gull and Caspian tern, and a high density of white-
tailed eagle are some of the known breeding species in the area, where the lesser black-backed
gull in particular uses the ground areas at Finngrunden for foraging. Particularly important areas
are Lövstabukten and Björns archipelago and the nature reserve Gräsö eastern archipelago. The
archipelago area west of B146 has a rich bird fauna and along the coast there are occurrences of
seabirds. Several protected bird species breed in the area. The energy areas of North Kvarken
are located just north of the very important migratory bird path that stretches northwest-southeast
between Umeå-Holmön and the Vaasa region of Österbotten in Finland, where the crossing of
the sea is the shortest. The migration route is used by several sensitive species of birds of prey
(in particularly high numbers of rough-legged buzzards) as well as common crane, bean goose,
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wader, whooper swan and other fell and taiga species. The energy area B135 is considered to
entail a risk of a medium negative effect, while B108 has a small negative effect on migratory
birds.
On the coast there are to some extent nesting seabirds and birds that stretch along the coast.
There is a risk of some negative impact from wind power establishment in the energy area B108,
albeit small. With regard to the latter area, the proximity to the Holmöarna islands is also
considered to pose some risk to the species that breed there, such as red-throated loons.
In the far north of the Gulf of Bothnia, the coastal area bordering the Haparanda Archipelago
National Park is very sensitive. Several of the islands are bird protection areas, and the national
park has been created partly because the area is relatively unaffected by humans. The area near
the coast is very important for migratory, resting and nesting birds, several of which are
susceptible to disturbance. The bird stretch is expected to occur on a broad front along the coast
and partly over the open sea, and there is some risk that it will be negatively affected by wind
power establishment. The risk is greater closer to the coast, which is why the potential negative
impact is assessed as medium in energy area B111, and small in energy area B113.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
The greatest risk of cumulative effects on birds is in the southern Bothnian Sea, where several
energy areas are located. This applies primarily to energy areas B152, B156 and B149 in the
vicinity of Finngrunden.
Several wind farms are planned on the Finnish side of the Bothnian Bay, which increases the risk
of cumulative effects in connection with the establishment of wind power on the Swedish side
(see section 3.5 Overall assessment). Moderate risk of negative impact on migratory birds if
establishments are established in the designated energy area west of Kokkola (southern part). If
wind power is established in the Vaasa archipelago and surrounding areas, the risk of impact is
considered to be high.
In the southern Bothnian Sea, on the Finnish side, there are several energy areas, all of which, if
built, carry the risk of a major negative cumulative effect on migratory birds. The establishment of
wind power in Åland's archipelagos entails a high risk of negative effects on both migratory,
breeding and wintering stocks. Risks of negative cumulative effects should be taken into account
in the future assessment of wind power projects on both sides of the border.
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Figure 23. Risks of adverse effects on migratory birds in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows
little effect.
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Figure 24. Potential negative effect on bird wintering areas of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark
color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.
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Bats
In the Gulf of Bothnia, it is primarily the migratory route at North Kvarken where the southern
parts of the energy area B135, but to some extent also B108 can have a negative impact on
migratory bats. Otherwise and generally, the risk of negative impact on bats depends on the
distance from land where energy areas within 10 km of land are considered to be at higher risk.
This provides an overall assessment of the low risk of impact on bats for the marine spatial plan.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
In the Gulf of Bothnia, the risk of cumulative effects on bats is relatively limited. It is in North
Kvarken that there is some risk that B135 and B108, if both are established, may have a
cumulative negative effect on bats.
In the agreed Finnish marine spatial plan, there is an area for energy use southeast of energy
area B135 that is estimated to have a cumulative negative effect together with B135 and to some
extent B108.
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Figure 25. Potential negative effect on bats of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows great
effect and light color shows little effect.
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Marine mammals
Occuring marine mammals in the Gulf of Bothnia include ringed seals and grey seals.
Ringed seal
In the Bothnian Bay there is a unique population of ringed seals where the population is stable,
but the species has been exposed to environmental toxins and the reproduction rate is
weakened. According to the latest status assessment in the Marine Strategy for the North Sea
and the Baltic Sea 2024, good environmental status is not achieved for ringed seals or any of the
other two seal species. This is partly due to the fact that population growth, one of the parameters
included in the indicator ‘Abundance and trend of species’, has slowed down compared to the
assessment period 2011-2016 (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024a). In
addition, its long-term survival depends on the availability of sea ice whose distribution is
threatened by climate change.
Based on current knowledge of the ringed seals reproductive area in the area, the energy areas
B111 and B113 are in the middle of the most important area in the sea basin. The marine spatial
plan is considered to potentially have a major negative effect on seals by affecting the presence
of stable sea ice. The wind turbines themselves can affect the ice and maintenance traffic to and
from the turbines may require ice-free passage.
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Figure 26. Potential negative impact of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia on ringed seals. Dark color
shows great effect and light color shows little effect.
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The energy areas B108 and B135 in North Kvarken are estimated to have little negative effect on
ringed seals, as these parts of the Gulf of Bothnia are less important as reproductive areas.
Energy areas in the Bothnian Sea are not considered to have any effect on the ringed seal.
Grey seal
Grey seals are found in the Gulf of Bothnia, mainly in the North Kvarken and in the Southern
Bothnian Sea. Like other seal species in Swedish waters, it does not achieve good environmental
status.
Grey seals are considered to be sensitive to disturbance during February to June and to be more
prevalent in coastal areas than out at sea. The more coastal energy area B142 is estimated to
have a potential small negative effect on grey seals. However, effects from the construction
phase are considered to be minimised to negligible levels if protective measures for underwater
noise are taken.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
It is mainly the energy areas B111 and B113 that, if both are established, would have a
cumulative negative effect on the ringed seal.
The Finnish marine spatial plan contains a number of energy areas in the northern Bothnian Bay,
which together with areas B111 and B113 in the Swedish plan proposal are estimated to have a
major negative impact on the population of ringed seals.
Benthic habitats
The benthic habitats in offshore areas and embankments in the Gulf of Bothnia consist of soft
bottoms with clay, but also, especially in the southern Bothnian Sea, a lot of rocks and boulders.
In soft-bottomed areas, bottom-fixed foundations will involve the introduction of a new hard
substrate.
The Symphony results show a small negative bottom effect for the energy areas B107, B139 and
B152. For other energy areas, the result is a marginal effect based on knowledge of existing
nature values and that about 1-2 per cent of the bottom is affected when wind power is
established.
If the bottom conditions are taken into account in the design and construction, it is considered that
negative permanent effects on existing benthic habitats can be avoided for both bottom-fixed and
floating foundations. Assessing the risk of negative effects from cabling is not possible as it is
uncertain how cables would be constructed.
Bottom trawling is not very common in the Gulf of Bothnia. There are therefore no prerequisites to
replace commercial fishing with wind power establishment for a positive local net effect on
benthic habitats.
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Cumulative and transboundary effects
The risk of cumulative negative effects on the benthic habitats is limited to ensuring that local
natural values are avoided during planning. The effects on benthic habitats is considered to be
local and temporary.
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Figure 27. Potential negative effect of proposals for energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia on benthic habitats. Energy
area B152 is expected to have a small negative effect, while other energy areas in the plan are expected to have a marginal
effect on benthic habitats.
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Fish and spawning grounds
In terms of effects on fish and fish spawning, the guidance on sand extraction at the shallow of
Svalan and Falken in the Bothnian Bay is considered to have a small negative effect locally on
fish, in particular spawning herring and vendace. The proposed extraction area partly coincides
with shallower spawning grounds out at sea, but not with the species' most important spawning
grounds. Since there are several spawning grounds in the Gulf of Bothnia, the most important of
which are in the coastal zone, the negative effect is considered to be marginal in relation to the
entire marine spatial plan area. It is important to adapt the extraction activities to important
reproduction periods for the fish species in the area.
There is a risk of marginally increased pressure through underwater noise and operational
emissions from shipping in connection with the marine spatial plan's guidance on slightly longer
shipping routes after adaptation to proposed energy areas in the South Bothnian Sea. Given that
the change in marine traffic is relatively small and that fish move in a very large area, the impact
on fish is considered to be marginal.
In the Gulf of Bothnia, there is some overlap between energy areas and spawning grounds,
mainly for herring. The exact extent of the spawning grounds is not always known, which is why
more detailed assessments need to be made for any future wind power establishment. It is mainly
the energy areas located near the coast or on shallower areas that are more likely to affect
spawning areas for herring. In the Southern Bothnian Sea, the conducted Symphony analysis
indicates that energy area B152 has a small risk of impact on spawning areas, while areas B143,
B149, B159 and B160 have a marginal effect on spawning areas.
In North Kvarken, the coastal area B108 risks affecting spawning grounds, and in the Bothnian
Bay the northernmost energy area B111. See Figure 28. As regards the risk of impact from the
energy areas on migratory salmon, this is considered to be low and mainly affect the coastal
energy areas, e.g. B146, B154 and B108. See also section 2.2.4 Benthic habitats.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
If wind farms are established in several of the more coastal energy areas, there is a risk of
cumulative negative effects on both fish spawning and conditions for salmon migration.
The uncertainty surrounding the development of Finnish offshore wind power makes it difficult to
assess the risk of cumulative effects, but in general there is a risk of impact mainly in shallower
coastal waters. As far as migratory salmon stocks are concerned, marine areas in both Sweden
and Finland are important.
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Figure 28. Potential negative effect on fish and spawning grounds of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia.
Dark color shows more effect and light color shows less effect. White color shows energy area in the zero alternative.
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Impact of proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature
values
The plan includes a number of proposals for new areas for particular consideration of high nature
values (so-called small n-areas). These have been developed in a process together with coastal
county administrative boards and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. SwAM is
responsible for the final proposals.
The Gulf of Bothnia plan area is generally characterised by a lower proportion of protected areas
as well as fewer areas for particular consideration of high nature values than both the Baltic Sea
and Skagerrak/Kattegat. However, the plan proposal includes a number of proposals for
additional areas for particular consideration of high nature values. The energy areas are B152
west of western Finngrunden and B156 south of Finngrunden. Both areas are proposed for
particular consideration of migratory and wintering birds. The energy area B149 with the
designation small n has been extended to the north, which has expanded the area for particular
consideration.
Ulvödjupet outside Härnösand and Örnsköldsvik is proposed as a new area for particular
consideration of high nature values through areas B123 and B165. Deep soft bottoms and reef
environments are characteristic of the area.
Furthermore, a larger expansion of the areas for particular consideration of high nature values for
the areas has been proposed at and north of North Kvarken. It also confirms the EBSA area over
the North Kvarken in the transboundary Swedish-Finnish waters (EBSA = Ecologically or
Biologically Significant Marine Areas). Area B118 has also been extended to the southwest.
In the northern Gulf of Bothnia, the energy area B111 and the area B112 are proposed for
general use as areas for particular consideration of high nature values. In these cases, especially
for the ringed seal.
The proposals for additional areas for particular consideration of high nature values are
considered to contribute to strengthened particular consideration for both areas with proposed
use of energy extraction and other uses. Together with areas for particular consideration of high
nature values in the adopted marine spatial plan, these are considered to provide a good
complement to the area protection, contribute to green infrastructure and ecosystem services and
sustainable use in the Gulf of Bothnia. Figure 29 shows the areas with nature use and particular
consideration for high nature values within the marine spatial plan area of the Gulf of Bothnia.
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Figure 29. Areas using nature (N) and decided on the respective proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high
nature values (n) in the Gulf of Bothnia.
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Effects on land, soil, water, air, climate, landscape,
settlement and cultural environment
Water and air
In terms of effects on air, the assessment refers to changes in emissions of airborne pollutants as
a result of the marine spatial plan guidance. The uses relevant in this context are shipping,
fishing, sand extraction and offshore wind. Wind power partly based on conversion to fossil-free
energy and reduced air pollution related to this. Effects on water as a habitat refer to changes in
the physical and chemical conditions of water as a result of the marine spatial plan guidance on
the different uses.
Turbidity and dispersal of sediments
In the Gulf of Bothnia, sand extraction in the proposed quarrying operations at the shallow of
Svalan and Falken is expected to have a negative effect on water quality locally, as a result of
increased turbidity in the vicinity of the extraction area. The effect is considered to be short-term,
and thus insignificant in terms of the marine spatial plan as a whole, in line with the conclusion in
the environmental impact assessment of the adopted marine spatial plan (Swedish Agency for
Marine and Water Management, 2019a).
Construction of offshore wind power and associated cabling are also activities that are expected
to lead to increased local turbidity and negative local impact on water quality. The turbidity itself
can lead to sequential effects on marine life and particular consideration needs to be given to
benthic habitats and organisms that are sensitive to impacts (see sections 2.3.1 and 2.2.5).
Dispersal of pollutants
During the construction phase, it is important that sediments and surroundings are carefully
examined to avoid the spread of contaminants. Sediments in the Gulf of Bothnia are
characterised by elevated levels of arsenic, which is probably due to high levels in the bedrock
within the catchment area and discharges from point sources (Josefsson, 2022). There are also
other impurities, such as chlorinated paraffins and PFAS (ibid). Sampling and examinations need
to be carried out to avoid stirring up particularly contaminated sediments during constructions
works. Close proximity to environmentally hazardous wrecks and dumped warfare agents can
also mean an increased risk of environmentally hazardous substances and pollutants spreading.
In the Southern Bothnian Sea there are two wrecks that are classified as environmentally
hazardous (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management Environmentally hazardous
wrecks, retrieved 2024 – 12-20), these need to be taken into account in construction and cabling
to avoid the spread of pollution.
There are four national monitoring stations in the Gulf of Bothnia, see Figure 30 below.
Environmental monitoring has been carried out for 16 years. Offshore wind energy establishment
in energy areas B111 and B146 (where permits exist) risks affecting sampling and stations may
need to be relocated, or otherwise taken into account during construction, operation and
decommissioning phases.
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Hydrographic effects
Studies have shown that offshore wind power can affect hydrographic conditions during
continuous operation, both at the surface and at the foundations (Arneborg et al., 2024). The
effects on surface water occur when the wind behind the wind farms decreases, which in turn can
affect currents and stratification in the surface water. The foundations have a small effect in that
they slow ocean currents and create turbulence that mixes different water layers. The effects of
offshore wind power can spread beyond the boundaries of the park and also lead to sequential
and consequences for marine life (see also Section 2.3.1. Water and air). The marine spatial plan
guides the large-scale deployment of offshore wind power in the Gulf of Bothnia, and cumulative
hydrographic effects need to be further investigated, for example with a focus on how changes in
hydrographic conditions can affect algal blooms, oxygen depletion and ice formation. Impacts of
energy expansion in neighbouring countries also need to be considered in terms of cumulative
and cross-border impacts on hydrography and potential second-round effects.
Changes in emissions and air quality
In terms of shipping, the Gulf of Bothnia marine spatial plan proposes an approximately five per
cent longer shipping route through the Southern Bothnian Sea as a result of energy areas B149
and B164. According to the environmental impact assessment of adopted marine spatial plans
(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019a), the consequences of the extended
route are marginally increased emissions from shipping and thus marginally worsened air quality
locally.
The establishment of wind power in the proposed energy areas may mean longer distances for
fishing vessels as well, and increased service traffic. However, it is difficult to assess the
magnitude of potential impacts on local air quality as a result of increased emissions. Sand
extraction at the shallow of Svalan and Falken in the Bothnian Bay can also lead to an increase in
air emissions from marine transport during sand extraction and between extraction area and port.
This is expected to have a marginal negative impact on local air quality.
In a longer time perspective, it is possible to reason that offshore wind power has a positive effect
on air quality as it has the potential to replace fossil-based energy sources, which in extraction,
production and combustion worsen air quality.
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Figure 30. Displays marine sampling stations and proposed energy areas, including the zero alternative in the marine spatial
plan area of the Gulf of Bothnia.
- 108 -
Climate
The marine spatial planning guidance on nature protection, particular consideration for high
nature values and energy extraction are the most relevant aspects in terms of climate impact. The
establishment of offshore wind power in energy use areas has the potential to provide society
with renewable and fossil-free energy. The expected negative climate-related impacts of energy
establishment are time-limited and small compared to the contribution of the marine spatial plan
to renewable energy. With the marine spatial plan's guidance on 13 energy areas in the Gulf of
Bothnia, the assessment is that there is great potential to contribute to Sweden's climate goals.
There are both direct and indirect effects in terms of potential climate benefits. The marine spatial
plan’s guidance on nature use and particular consideration for high nature values can indirectly
lead to climate benefits if these areas are protected from interventions that negatively affect the
marine environment, which in turn affects both ecosystem resilience and the ability to store
organic carbon.
Climate benefits linked to energy extraction through offshore wind power
Fossil-free energy production is central to the climate transition by enabling the electrification of
society (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2023b, Government, 2021b). In the long
term, there is a great need for energy supply in the Gulf of Bothnia, partly because of large
energy establishments located in northern Sweden, and because the supply of renewable
electricity is a prerequisite for society to cope with the transition and achieve Sweden's climate
goals. Offshore wind power is a renewable energy that has low climate emissions from a life cycle
perspective (Energy Agency 2023a). The direct climate benefit is that offshore wind power can
replace energy production that has a higher climate impact. Great climate benefits could also be
achieved by using energy as an energy carrier to electrify the industrial and transport sectors,
which today account for a fair share of Sweden's greenhouse gas emissions (Energy Agency,
2024). Indirectly, climate benefits can also arise from the fact that the electricity produced is
exported to other countries, thereby replacing other energy production with higher emissions (see
Section 2.4.1. Energy).
There are several uncertainties and limitations to make a quantitative estimate and calculation of
the climate benefit. Among other things, the final climate benefit depends on how many areas,
and how much of individual areas are realized. It also depends on the method used to estimate
potential energy production. Compared to what is generally used among wind power projectors,
marine spatial planning uses a more conservative calculation of potential energy production. For
the Gulf of Bothnia, the plan is estimated to enable approximately 130 TWh of annual energy
production (see also section 3.4.1). There are several factors that can determine the actual
climate benefit that could result from the plan’s guidance. This may include factors such as how
much capacity there is in the electricity grid and infrastructure, how other energy production and
associated climate emissions are changing and what the electricity demand will look like in the
future.
Chapter 2 (Section 2.3.2. Climate) presents a reasoning to estimate potential climate benefits.
This reasoning was also the basis for calculations made in the previous sustainability report
(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2019b) and is based on comparing climate
impact between offshore wind power and residual mix. The climate impact from offshore wind
power is approximately 11 000 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per TWh (Energy Authority,
2021) corresponding to 524 100 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per TWh for the residual mix
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in 2023 (Energy Market Inspectorate, 2024). Calculations according to the same methodology for
the proposal for a marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia show that the plan's guidance on
energy extraction has great potential to contribute to climate benefits. The table also shows a
comparison between potential CO2 emission reductions per TWh and Sweden’s total emissions
in 2023 (SCB, 2024). As mentioned above, this is only a calculation example and not an actual
measure of climate benefit, as there are several limiting factors to achieve this climate benefit in
reality. It is reasonable to assume that the climate benefit is initially greater, and decreases with
time when the fossil energy sources have been replaced and phased out. The overall
assessment of potential climate benefits in the Gulf of Bothnia is that the marine spatial plan's
guidance contributes to creating good conditions for climate benefits.
Table 14. Shows results of calculation for potential climate benefit as offshore wind power according to the plan proposal, the
zero alternative and the current situation in the Gulf of Bothnia would replace the Nordic residual mix.
TWh Climate impact Nordic residual Potential Potential
Offshore wind energy mix (524 100 CO2- reduction in
(11 000 tonnes CO2- tonnes CO2- equivalent relation to
equivalent/TWh) equivalent/ TWh) reduction Sweden’s
emissions in
2023
Existing offshore
wind power in
the Gulf of
Bothnia 0 0 0 0 0%
Zero
alternatives
(permitted
projects) 3,8 44 000 2 096 400 2 052 400 4%
Proposal for a
marine spatial
plan 127 1 397 000 66 560 700 65 163 700 135 %
In a longer time perspective, and a larger geographical perspective, the establishment and
expansion of offshore wind power also leads to positive effects for the marine environment in
terms of reduced emissions and reduced climate impact.
Changes in emissions
The proposal for a marine spatial plan with energy areas may have an impact on other uses with
a potential impact on greenhouse gas emissions. This applies, for example, to possible changes
in the mileage of shipping and commercial fishing. For the Southern Bothnian Sea, the guidance
on energy use in area B164 changes the fairway for shipping. The cluster of energy areas close
to shipping lanes also means potentially extended mileage for shipping. However, the impact on
greenhouse gas emissions is difficult to estimate, but it is estimated that a limited number of
passages are affected. Extended itinerary has been estimated to a maximum of approximately 15
km based on the plan map and AIS data, which is considered to be of minor importance (Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019b). The stretching of the fairway in the current
marine spatial plan is no different from the decided marine spatial plan, where the fairway is
moved and runs north-east of the proposed energy areas.
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Installation and servicing of offshore wind power can also involve emissions that affect the
climate, but in relation to the input of renewable energy, these emissions are considered to be
insignificant.
Guidance on nature conservation and particular consideration - carbon sequestration
The marine spatial planning provides guidance on both nature use (N) and particular
consideration for high nature values (n). Marine areas that are protected against disturbances
and impacts can generally be assumed to have better conditions both to deal with climate change
by conserving biodiversity, and better conditions to store carbon as they are to some extent
protected from physical disturbances. There are no data or figures that describe the potential and
ability for carbon sequestration in different benthic habitats and sediments in a Swedish national
context. Norwegian researchers have mapped carbon sequestration in Norwegian marine areas,
and concluded that benthic habitats of different nature have different abilities and conditions to
contribute to carbon sequestration, both in shorter and longer time perspectives. An important
conclusion of the study is that benthic habitats that are left undisturbed have greater potential to
act as natural carbon sinks (Diesing et al., 2024).
In the Gulf of Bothnia there are several different types of benthic habitats, and the marine spatial
plan guides the use of nature, and particular consideration is given to high nature values on a
total area of approximately 38,500 square kilometres, which corresponds to just over 28 per cent
of the Gulf of Bothnia's marine spatial plan area. The largest proportion is made up of areas with
particular consideration to high nature values, and only 6% are protected areas. The proposal for
the area of high nature value has also been extended in relation to adopted marine spatial plans
(see section 3.2.6. Proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature values).
Marine spatial planning as such is only a small part of, and has no decisive role in, the ocean
management processes that decide on guidelines for human activities in protected areas.
However, the guidance on particular consideration is considered to be able to contribute
positively to the protection of marine environments to a greater extent than if the guidance had
not been provided. As mentioned earlier, there is no nationwide data or an established method to
calculate or quantify the extent and rate of carbon storage in the Gulf of Bothnia, to investigate
this further can lead to a better understanding of the climate benefits of conserving and protecting
marine ecosystems.
Adaptation to climate change
The guidance for particular consideration for high nature values has taken into account data for
climate refugias for particularly important species such as ringed seals, mussels, eelgrass,
herring and cod (Hammar & Mattsson, 2017). This is to avoid negative pressures on areas that
may be of particular importance in a future climate. In the Gulf of Bothnia, there are climate
refugias for ringed seals, but they are coastal in the Gulf of Bothnia and not within the marine
spatial planning area.
For the Gulf of Bothnia, ice formation is a particularly important condition for many life forms, such
as the ringed seal. Climate projections for the Gulf of Bothnia show that temperature rises and
salinity changes, but also that ice formation and ice thickness will change (see Figure 29 below,
which shows the expected change in the proportion of winters with ice cover and expected
thickness of ice for RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5).
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Figure 31. The two upper maps show the expected winter ice extent for RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 respectively. The two lower ones
show the expected ice thickness according to RCP 4.8 and RCP 8.5.
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Landscape
In the Gulf of Bothnia, impact on landscape is concentrated to certain areas. It is mainly about the
southwestern part of the Southern Bothnian Sea and the southwestern part of the Bothnian Bay,
but also the northern Bothnian Bay. In the marine spatial plan area, there are three energy areas
that are considered to entail a risk of major negative impact on landscapes: B108 in North
Kvarken and B152 and B156 east of Gävle. Furthermore, three additional energy areas are
expected to have a medium negative effect on landscapes: B111, B135 and B142. These areas
are wholly or partly within the territorial boundary and are therefore relatively close to the coast. In
an energy area, the risk of negative effects on landscapes is assessed as low: B164. B113, B149
and B159 are considered to have marginal negative effects on landscapes and B160 and B161
are not considered to have any negative effect on landscapes. Figure 32below shows the
estimated negative impact for each energy area in the Gulf of Bothnia.
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Figure 32. Potential negative effect on landscapes of proposed energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. In the energy areas, dark
color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. Accumulated visibility from land is shown over the sea and visibility of
energy areas is shown over land.
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Area-specific assessments
Gulf of Bothnia
Energy area B111 can primarily have a visual impact on areas in the Haparanda Archipelago,
including within the Haparanda Archipelago National Park and the island of Malören. From
Sandskär in the national park it is about 10 kilometers to B111, while from Haparanda's mainland
coast it is about 35 kilometers to the energy area.
Energy area B108 is located closest to about 7 kilometers from the coast and is expected to
primarily have a visual impact on local coastal areas at Bygdeå, as well as the Holmöarna
islands, not least towards the island of Stora Fjäderägg. The energy area B135 can also affect
the Holmöarna islands, but more limited as it is about 22 kilometers away.
Southern Bothnian Sea
In the Southern Bothnian Sea, B142 is estimated to have the greatest impact on landscapes in
the areas in the southern part of Hornslandet, as well as Agön. Despite its generally medium
negative effect on landscapes, the energy area can have greater negative effects locally, not
least on the mentioned areas around Hornslandet and Agön. From B142 to Hornslandet it is
about 8 kilometers.
The energy area B152 has a landscape impact on the coast outside Gävle. Areas that are mainly
affected are those around Fågelsundet and Björn, Billudden, as well as the islands Eggegrund-
Gråsjälsbådan, Lövgrund, Vitgrund, Eskön and Iggön.
The energy area B156 has its greatest landscape impact in the areas of Fågelsundet and Björn,
as well as Norrboda and Örskär on northern Gräsö. From the energy area to Örskär and
Fågelsundet it is about 18 kilometers, while Gävle's coastal parts are about 25 kilometers away.
Other impacts on landscapes
In the Southern Bothnian Sea there is the landscape protection area Öregrund and Östhammar,
which has a direct overlap with the south-eastern part of energy area B156. The same part of
B156 is overlapped by the Coastal Area from Arkösund to Forsmark, which is a national interest
for high-exploited coasts (Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code). Along the Uppland
coast there are also landscape protection areas Björns skärgård, Bondskäret, Klubben and
Ledskärsängna which are relatively close to B152 and B156, which may negatively affect these
protections.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
In the Gulf of Bothnia, Finnish areas can be affected by energy areas. In the Gulf of Bothnia, the
B111 can have some negative landscape impact mainly on the islands of Karlö, Ulkokrunni and
Maakrunni. The B135 energy area is estimated to have some negative landscape impact on
Finnish areas in North Kvarken, from the islands west of Kokkola to Björkö northwest of Vaasa
about 35 kilometers away. The marine spatial plan of Åland contains energy areas that may affect
the landscape protection area at Öregrund and Östhammar, which is about 19 kilometres away.
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Neighbouring energy areas will have a synergetic cumulative effect on the landscape of the coast
of the south-west Bothnian Sea. From many outlook points along the coast, several wind farms
can be visible in good weather. Based on the number of energy areas, their size, relatively
coastal location and its location along the coast with relatively even distances, the cumulative
impact in the Southern Bothnian Sea is estimated to be large. In the Gulf of Bothnia, the energy
area B108 together with B135 together can produce cumulative effects. The cumulative effects
from the northernmost energy areas are estimated to be small.
Cultural environment
Indirect influence – National interest claims in cultural heritage conservation, Chapter 3, Section
6 of the Environmental Code
In the Gulf of Bothnia's marine spatial plan area, there are five energy areas that are considered
to entail a risk of large negative impact on national interest claims for cultural heritage
conservation: B108 outside Bygdeå, B111 outside Haparanda archipelago, B142 outside
Hudiksvall, and B152 and B156 outside Gävle. These areas are wholly or partly within the
territorial sea boundary and are therefore relatively close to the coast. In another energy area, the
risk of negative effects on cultural heritage management is considered to be medium: B135.
Finally, there is an energy area that is considered to give rise to a risk of a small negative effect
on cultural heritage conservation (B164), three energy areas with marginal negative effect (B113,
B149, B159), and two energy areas with no effect (B160, B161). In addition to B159, B160 and
B161, the marine spatial plan specifies other energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia with particular
consideration to high cultural heritage values (small-k). The guidance on particular consideration
for high cultural heritage values is considered to entail adaptations of the location and design of
wind farms regarding, for example, the location and height of wind turbines in order to reduce the
impact on the specific cultural heritage sites concerned. Fel! Hittar inte referenskälla.below
shows the estimated negative impact of the respective energy area.
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Figure 33. Potential indirect negative effect of energy areas on national interest claims for cultural environment in the Gulf of
Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.
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Gulf of Bothnia
In the Bothnian Bay, B111 is considered to be able to cause a risk of negative impact primarily on
Malören and Sandskär, which are covered by values such as fishing villages, seasonal fishing
villages, communication environments and archaeological environments. Expressions of national
interest claims include fishing villages, beacon grounds, labyrinths, wrecks, lighthouses, chapels,
jetties and pilot station. In addition to the national interest claims being within the bounds of
dominance/competition (see Chapter 8. Method) from B111, the energy area risks affecting
communication environments where free views are an essential expression. It may also affect
fishing villages where adjacent coastal and marine landscapes are an essential physical
expression.
Energy area B108 is considered to be able to cause a risk of negative impact primarily on Ratan,
Stora Fjäderägg and Holmöns village. These are covered by values such as a composite coastal
and archipelago environment, seasonal fishing villages, ancient and medieval coastal
environment, archipelago village and agricultural landscape. Expressions of national interest
include, among other things, buildings linked to port operations, remnants of war, labyrinths, plots
of land, lighthouses, and an unobstructed view of the sea out from Rataskär. In addition to the
national interest claims being within the bounds of dominance/competition to B108, the energy
area may affect communication environments where free outlooks are an essential expression. It
may also affect the fishing village and coastal and archipelago environment where adjacent
coastal and marine landscapes are an essential physical expression.
B135 is considered to be able to cause a risk of negative impact primarily on Stora Fjäderägg.
The cultural environment includes seasonal fishing villages as well as ancient and medieval
coastal environment. Expressions of national interest are covered by plots of land, a lighthouse,
labyrinths and buildings linked to fishing activities. In addition to the national interest claims being
within the bounds of dominance/competition to B135, the energy area may affect communication
environments where free outlooks are an essential expression. It may also affect fishing villages
and coastal and archipelago environments where adjacent coastal and marine landscapes are an
essential physical expression.
Southern Bothnian Sea
In the Southern Bothnian Sea, B142 is considered to be able to cause a risk of negative impact
primarily on the cultural environments Agö, Drakö, Kråkö and Innerstön, Kuggörens, Bålsö and
Prästgrundets fishing village. The environments are covered by the coastal and archipelago
environment, which through land uplift has different port locations from several centuries as well
as representative 17th, 18th and 19th century fishing harbor. Expressions of national interest
include medieval archaeological environment, harbours, fishing communities, settlements,
cemeteries and chapels. It also includes the maze in Bålsö, Prästgrundets, Kuggörens fishing
village, as well as burial fields with cairns and stone settings in the latter two. In addition to the
fact that these environments are within the bounds of dominance/competition to B142, the energy
field may affect the archaeological environment where free views are an essential expression. It
may also affect fishing villages and coastal and archipelago environments where adjacent coastal
and marine landscapes are an essential physical expression.
B152 is considered to be capable of causing a risk of negative impact on national interest claims
for cultural heritage conservation in Norrlandet, Bönan and Utvalsnäs and Hållen and
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Fågelsundet. The national interest claims are described as recreational environments with
parkland and large summer villas from the late 19th century, archaeological environment, fishing
harbours, farmland and village environments with a cluster character. Expressions of national
interest lie, among other things, in the fishing harbours, villas, viking burial fields, cultivation sites,
as well as medieval sites. In addition to these environments being within the boundary of
dominance/competition to B152, the energy area may affect the communication environment and
recreation environment where free views are an essential expression. It may also affect fishing
villages and coastal and archipelago environments where adjacent coastal and marine
landscapes are an essential physical expression.
B156 is considered to be capable of causing a risk of negative impact primarily on the national
interest claim for cultural heritage conservation Hållen and Fågelsundet. The national interest
claim environment is described as a farmed landscape, village environment with cluster
character, fishing harbour and archaeological environment. Expressions of national interest are
linked viking age burial fields, cultivation and medieval sites. In addition to the national interest
being within the bounds of dominance/competition to B156, the energy area may affect the
communication environment and recreational environment where free views are an essential
expression. It may also affect the fishing village and coastal and archipelago environment where
adjacent coastal and marine landscapes are an essential physical expression.
Direct impact
The marine spatial plan area of the Gulf of Bothnia contains a number of registered marine
archaeological sites in both the proposed energy areas and those included in the zero alternative.
Figure 34 shows recorded marine archaeological sites within and outside energy areas.
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Figure 34. Risk of impact on marine archaeological sites.
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Energy area B159 has the most registered marine archaeological sites in the area with five. B160
and B164 have four, B161 has three, B152 and B156 have two and B108, B142 and B149 have
one each. B111, B113 and B135 have no recorded marine archaeological sites in the area. Table
15 provides an overview of the number of marine archaeological sites for individual proposed
energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Note that the compilation only refers to the sites that are
registered in the Swedish National Heritage Board's Cultural Environment Register
(Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.y.). Since knowledge of the existence of marine archaeological sites
in Swedish waters is not complete, the establishment of offshore wind power should be preceded
by marine archaeological investigations where there may be marine archaeological sites (County
Administrative Boards, 2024).
Table 15. Number of recorded marine archaeological sites per energy area in the Gulf of Bothnia. Source: The Swedish National
Heritage Board's Cultural Environment Register (Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.y.).
Energy area Number of marine archaeological sites
B108 1
B111 0
B113 0
B135 0
B142 1
B149 1
B152 2
B156 2
B159 5
B160 4
B161 3
B164 4
Indirect and direct impact – Regional value areas
In the Gulf of Bothnia's marine spatial plan area, there are two energy areas that are expected to
have a large negative effect on marine regional value areas: B108 and B142. These areas are
wholly or partly within the territorial sea boundary and are therefore relatively close to the coast.
Three energy areas are considered to have a medium negative impact on value areas: B111,
B152 and B156. Two energy areas are considered to have little negative impact on value areas:
B135 and B164, while three energy areas are estimated to have marginal negative effects on
value areas: B113, B149 and B159. B160 and B161 are not considered to have any negative
effect on value areas. Figure 35 below shows the estimated negative impact of each energy area
on marine cultural heritage values based on the County Administrative Board’s identification of
regional value areas.
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Figure 35. Indirect and direct negative impact on regional cultural heritage value areas.
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Gulf of Bothnia
B111 is considered to be able to cause a risk of negative impact on the value areas Malören,
Sandskär, Haparanda archipelago and Likskär and Renskär. All areas are sensitive to the
establishment of tall facilities and other visually dominant features. Wreck sites that are sensitive
to possible cabling are registered in close proximity to all value areas. Several value areas have
expressed consideration needs that overlap with the energy area in the form of free lines of sight
and outlooks (County Administrative Boards, 2024).
B108 is considered to pose a risk of impact on cultural environments within the Ratan value area.
In the value area, the view from Rataskär's lighthouse, beacon and pilotage house towards the
open sea is particularly sensitive to tall and large facilities. In the area there are a few registered
wreck sites that require consideration when cabling. Furthermore, the expansion of wind power
within B108 is expected to entail a risk of impact on the value areas Holmön-Stora Fjäderägg and
Ängesön. Free views towards the open sea are important for the understanding of cultural
environments in both areas of value. Registered wreck sites can be found in areas around both
Stora Fjäderägg and Ängesön (Länsstyrelserna, 2024).
Southern Bothnian Sea
In the Southern Bothnian Sea there are a number of value areas that, to varying degrees, risk
being affected by the establishment of wind power in areas B142, B152 and B156. B142 risks
having a negative effect on cultural environments in the value areas Agö-Kråköarkipelagen,
Bålsö-Kuggörarna and Skärså-Prästgrundet. For the value area Bålsö-Kuggörarna there are
visual connections to the open sea. Wreckage sites are registered in and close to both value
areas, which are at risk of being affected by cabling. Furthermore, B142 risks having a negative
impact on the Skärså-Prästgrundet value area. The area is sensitive to the establishment of
facilities that interfere with the experience of the fishing village. A few marine archaeological sites
are registered in the waters off Prästgrundet (Länsstyrelserna, 2024).
B152 together with B156 has the risk of having a negative effect on cultural environments in the
value areas Fågelsundet and Björns lighthouse, Kniven and Sikhjälma. Fågelsundet and Björn's
lighthouse risk being visually affected, especially northeast from Fågelsundet and from Björn's
lighthouse towards the open horizon. Kniven and Sikhjälma include both historical fishing villages,
where the connection between the fishing village and the open sea is of great importance. Since
relatively few marine archaeological sites are registered in these areas, they are not considered
to be sensitive to cabling. B152 also risks affecting the Iggö-Iggöhällan shipwreck area. The
shipwreck area has a dense presence of wrecks that make it sensitive to cabling and other
installations on the seabed. Iggöhällen is sensitive to tall facilities to the east. The value area also
includes the cultural environment type farmed landscape, which is unique within the marine
spatial planning area. B152 also risks having a negative impact on cultural environments in the
value area Norrlandet-Utvalsnäs-Lövgrund-Limön. The value area includes two types of cultural
environment that are rare in the marine spatial planning area, namely summer entertainment
environment and holiday home environment that may to some extent be sensitive to wind power
exploitation. Finally, the B152 is also close to Skutskär, which has industrial environments and
port facilities. However, the area is considered to be less sensitive to the establishment of taller
objects due to its industrial character. In the value area, there are relatively few known
shipwrecks and thus not sensitive to cabling (County Administrative Boards, 2024).
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In addition to the impact on the former value areas in the previous paragraph, the B156 also risks
visually affecting Örskär's lighthouse site to the north. The area has links to shipping as well as
an open and barren archipelago landscape that allows for long lines of sight towards the horizon,
making the area sensitive to facilities that interfere with that experience. Consideration is given to
maintaining clear lines of sight northwards. Relatively few marine archaeological sites around
Örskär and cabling is considered possible. Finally, B156 is close to the value area Norrboda-
Söderboda. The area includes fishing villages and archipelago farming, where sight lines
northeast from Gräsö's eastern side are to be protected. In the archipelago there are marine
archaeological sites, which makes the area unsuitable for laying cables without careful mapping
of the marine archaeological conditions (County Administrative Boards, 2024).
Other impacts on cultural environment
Energy areas in the Southern Bothnian Sea can cause negative effects on landscape protection
areas off the northern coast of Uppland, see previous chapter 3.3.3. The Haparanda Archipelago
National Park is located about 10 kilometres from energy area B111. The national park includes
cultural-historical values to be protected, not least the buildings within the park.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
In the Gulf of Bothnia, Sweden's and Finland's offshore energy areas can influence each other's
cultural environments. Despite the fact that all projects in Finland's exclusive economic zone have
been rejected pending new legislation (Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment, 2024),
there may in the future be an offshore wind power area outside Ijo-Simo in the Gulf of Bothnia
along Finland's marine spatial plan 2030 (Finnish marine spatial plan, 2021), which may have an
indirect impact on the value area Haparanda archipelago (20 kilometres away) and the value area
and the national interest Sandskär (26 kilometres away). Further south in the North Kvarken there
is Kvarken's northern offshore wind power area which can have a negative effect mainly on the
national interest claim Stora Fjäderägg and the value areas Holmön-Stora Fjäderägg (28
kilometers away) and Ängesön (23 kilometers away).
For the impact of Swedish energy areas on the Finnish cultural environment, B111 may risk
indirectly affecting cultural environments in Finland, in particular the Bothnian Bay National Park
and cultural environments in Kemi (25 kilometres away). The B135 risks having a visual impact
on the UNESCO World Heritage site Kvarken Archipelago in Finland (22 kilometres away).
The cumulative effects of energy areas on the cultural environment of the Gulf of Bothnia vary,
but are mainly concentrated in the Southern Bothnian Sea. However, the B111 in the Bothnian
Bay can provide indirect cumulative effects for twelve national interest claims for cultural heritage
conservation to a varied extent at a distance of up to 70 kilometers. It is also expected to have
negative cumulative effects on 12 marine value areas. Further south, the cumulative effects from
B108 are expected to affect up to six national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation
and five marine value areas. In the Southern Bothnian Sea, the cumulative effects are expected
to be large from B142, as it can have an indirect negative impact on up to 15 national interest
claims for cultural heritage conservation and twelve marine value areas. The large cumulative
impact is expected due to B142's number of affected cultural environments and its relative
proximity. Furthermore, indirect cumulative impacts from B152 and B156 are expected to be
large. B152 and B156 may have indirect effects for up to 14 and 15 national interest claims for
cultural heritage conservation and up to 15 and 16 marine value areas respectively.
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For cumulative effects on specific cultural environments, Ratan, Stora Fjäderägg and Holmöarna
are expected to have greater negative cumulative consequences when establishing wind power
in B108 and B135, based on its proximity. The cumulative effects, based on how many energy
areas can have an indirect impact on cultural environments in the Bothnian Bay, are not expected
to be as large when establishing wind power in B111 and B113. Many cultural environments
along the Gulf of Gävle are expected to have greater cumulative effects when establishing most
energy areas. B142 combined with B164 can be perceived as a larger contiguous area that
covers a long stretch of coastline, which can have a negative indirect impact on cultural
environments at Hornslandet, Agö and Skärså-Prästgrundet. B152 and B156 together give rise to
indirect cumulative effects for a large number of cultural environments along the coasts of Gävle
and Uppland, especially at Fågelsundet, Örskär and Norrlandet.
Below is table 16 showing the total sum of cumulative impacts from each energy area in the Gulf
of Bothnia. The highest cumulative impact on national interest claims for cultural heritage
conservation is B142 and B152 has the highest cumulative impact on marine value areas.
Table 16. Shows cumulative effects in the Gulf of Bothnia from energy areas on national interest claims for cultural environment
conservation and marine value areas, based on the number of cultural environments affected, as well as its proximity. The
higher the cumulative impact. The method is described in Chapter 8.
Cumulative impact on national interest Cumulative impact on marine value areas
Energy area
claims for cultural heritage conservation
B108 50,5 30
B111 76 71
B113 24,5 27
B135 32,5 27,5
B142 128,5 45
B149 10 19
B152 67,5 75,5
B156 60,5 63
B159 8 7,5
B160 0 1
B161 0 3
B164 47,5 27
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Effects on the management of water, soil and the physical
environment in general
Energy extraction
Offshore wind power has relatively good conditions in the marine spatial planning area of the Gulf
of Bothnia. Wind conditions in the area are generally good, although slightly lower than the other
plan areas. The plan area has an elongated coastline with relatively shallow water areas, and
relatively lower levels of interest conflicts, compared to other marine spatial plan areas. However,
conflicts of interest also exist to varying degrees within the planning area, such as defence and
nature values. A wind power project in the Southern Bothnian Sea (part of B146) has been
granted a permit, but no installations have yet been built.
Characteristic of the plan area is the ice formation in winter. Maritime authorities have raised the
risk that offshore wind power can affect ice formation, which can make it more difficult for both
shipping and icebreaking. During normal winters, the entire Bothnian Bay and large parts of the
Bothnian Sea, including the Northern Quark, freeze. A particular challenge for the plan area is
thus uncertainties regarding coexistence for energy production and winter navigation, based on
the spatial flexibility considered necessary for accessibility and icebreaking (Ringsberg et al.,
2024), see section 2.4.5 prerequisites and assessment Maritime transport.
The plan's guidance on energy extraction is based on the adopted marine spatial plan, national
interest claims for wind power, planning documents Proposals for suitable energy extraction
areas for marine spatial plans (Energy Agency 2023a), which is handled as a public interest of
substantial importance. The adopted marine spatial plan, national interest claims for wind power
and municipal comprehensive plans have also been taken into account.
The draft marine spatial plan includes 13 areas for energy extraction. Areas for energy production
cover a total area of approximately 6,600 km2, approximately 17 per cent of the plan area and
are estimated to generate an annual electricity production of approximately 130 TWh, based on
assumptions of 5 MW/ km2 and 4000 full load hours per year, see plan document part 6.1 for
further description (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025). The target for all
marine spatial plans corresponds to a total of 120 TWh in annual production, which means that
not all identified energy areas are assumed to be fully realized in the plan area.
Figure 36 below shows all energy areas in the marine spatial plan, as well as areas in the initial
planning document, Proposals for suitable energy extraction areas, presented in 2023 (Energy
Agency 2023a). The map in the figure also shows a grading of the conditions for energy
extraction for each energy area based on wind and depth conditions. Note that the classification
does not include other factors such as distance to the connection point or other conditions.
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Figure 36. Map of energy areas in the plan proposal, zero alternatives, and initially identified suitable energy areas for energy
extraction (Energimyndigheten.2023a), as well as conditions for energy extraction based on wind and depth conditions.
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Area-specific assessments, nature and conditions for energy extraction
All energy areas in the marine spatial plan The Gulf of Bothnia are included in the documentation
on suitable energy extraction areas for marine spatial plans presented in 2023 (Energy Agency,
2023a). The assessment of the respective energy areas and their conditions for energy extraction
has been limited to the assessment of their nature in terms of wind and depth conditions. In a
weight-of-evidence assessment, values for wind and depth are added to a total value on a four-
point assessment scale. For more information see Chapter 8. Method.
Table 17. Grouping, for wind speed and depth indicators.
Group/points Wind speed, medium Depth, medium
1 Less than 8,5 m/s Depths exceeding -70 m
2 Between 8,5 and 9 m/s Between -40 and -70 m
3 Greater than 9 m/s Founder than -40 m
The marine spatial plan consists of three sea basins and the assessment of energy areas is
presented from north to south, see also Table 18 below.
Gulf of Bothnia
The plan provides guidance on four areas for energy extraction.
- In the far north are the two medium-sized areas B111 and B113, with wind conditions
between 8.5 and 9 m/s and where B111 is estimated to have a depth between 40 and 70
meters, respectively B113 deeper than 70 meters.
- The energy area B111 is located partly in the territorial sea of the municipality of Kalix, partly
in the exclusive economic zone. Establishment of wind power is assumed to consist of a mix
of bottom-fixed and floating foundations. For the area, special needs for space and flexibility
for winter navigation, icebreaking and ship traffic to Swedish and Finnish ports have been
noted (Ringsberg et al., 2024). Area B113 is located in the outer sea area, partly in the
territorial sea but mostly in the exclusive economic zone. For the area, wind farm with floating
foundations is assumed.
- To the south of the sea area is the area B108, which is located in the territorial sea and
Robertsfors municipality. Areas have been expanded compared to the adopted marine
spatial plan (Government, 2022a), but are smaller than the area identified as a public interest
of substantial importance (Energy Agency 2023a). The area is located relatively shallow and
is assumed to consist of a wind farm with bottom-fixed foundations.
- At the level of B108, further out at sea and into the economic zone, is area B135 located.
The area is considered to have good wind conditions and depth conditions with depths from
40 to 70 meters. Establishment of wind power is assumed to consist of a mix of bottom-fixed
and floating foundations.
Northern Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken
In the sea area North Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken, the energy area B161 is located in an
exclusive economic zone. Wind conditions are considered to be very good and the depth
rangefrom 40 to 70 meters. Wind farms are assumed to consist of a mix of foundation types. Area
B161 is located next to energy areas B160 and B159 in the South Bothnian Sea.
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Southern Bothnian Sea
The plan provides guidance on eight energy extraction areas. The areas are relatively
concentrated. They are considered to have relatively favourable conditions regarding wind and
depth conditions. The relative coastal areas are estimated to have slightly lower wind conditions,
compared to areas further out from the coast. All areas are estimated to be at depths between 40
to 70 meters.
- In the central Bothnian Sea, areas B159, B160 are adjacent to the EEZ, and adjacent to area
B161. Wind farms are assumed to consist of a mix of foundation types.
- The relative coastal areas (B142, B152, B156) are wholly or partly located within the
territorial sea and municipal plan areas. The municipalities concerned are Hudiksvall,
Söderhamn, Gävle, Älvkarleby, Tierp and Östhammar.
- For the area Storgrundet B146 there is a licensed project for the establishment of wind power
and national interest claims for wind power. The area is also listed as an energy extraction
area in the previously adopted marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia 2022 (Regeringen,
2022a). The area is also specified in the plan as an investigation area regarding coexistence
with shipping.
- In the marine area, two major energy areas are located, B159 and B164, corresponding to
approximately 1,000 and 1,500 square kilometres, respectively.
The concentration of areas in the Southern Bothnian Sea may entail the possibility of synergies in
terms of infrastructure and maintenance, but also the risk of an overall large cumulative impact in
terms of other interests in the area, wind farms among themselves, and capacity for connection
point to the transmission network. With regard to conflicts of interest, see the overall assessment,
as well as the respective assessment aspects and the need for adjustments when establishing a
wind farm.
In the Southern Bothnian Sea there are three investigation areas for energy extraction (B149,
B152, B156). The distribution areas relate to the investigation of uncertainties regarding the
potential impact of the areas on migratory birds. The plan also includes particular consideration
for the interests of defence in all areas, as well as particular consideration for high nature and/or
cultural environmental values for a number of areas.
In the Southern Bothnian Sea, the plan specifies the use of electricity transmission, which applies
to transmission grid cables between Sweden and Finland.
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Table 18. Plan proposal Gulf of Bothnia. Overview of guidance on energy extraction, location and conditions.
Of which
Gulf of Area km2 in Estimated
Bothnia territorial electricity Adoption; wind, Depth
Permits/
Sea area; Design Km2 sea ~22 Municipality production, Typ Group Group
Zero-
North to ation km (12 TWh*
Option
South NM)
Gulf of Kalix Bottom-
B111 570 280 11,4 2 2
Bothnia Efkn fixed
Gulf of B113 Efk 480 3 Luleå 9,6 Mix 2 1
Bothnia
Gulf of Robertsfors Bottom- 3
B108 150 150 3,0 1
Bothnia Efkn fixed
Gulf of B135 Efk 290 9 Umeå 5,7 Mix 2 2
Bothnia
Northern
Bothnian Sea B161 EF 440 0 8,8 Mix
and North 3 2
Kvarken
Southern Bottom- 3 2
B159 1040 0 20,7
Bothnian Sea EF fixed
Southern B160 690 0 13,8 Mix
Bothnian Sea EF 3 2
Southern B164 1480 0 29,7 Mix
Bothnian Sea Efk 2 2
Southern Hudiksvall Bottom-
B142 165 165 3,3 1 2
Bothnian Sea Efkn fixed
Southern E(utr) Bottom-
B149 550 0 11,0 3 2
Bothnian Sea fn fixed
Southern B146 Gävle, Bottom- - -
190 190 3,8
Bothnian Sea (Permits) Efkn Söderhamn fixed
Southern E(utr) Gävle, Bottom- 1 2
B152 180 185 3,7
Bothnian Sea fkn Älvkarlaby fixed
Tierp, 2 2
Southern
Älvkarleby Bottom-
B156 E(utr)f 360 190 Östhammar 7,3
Bothnian Sea fixed
kn
Total, 130
approximatel 6 600 1 170
y
* Assumption according to marine spatial plan, 5MW/km2, 4000 full load hours.
Overall description
The marine spatial plan generally has medium-quality conditions for energy extraction and wind
power establishment. Conditions regarding wind are medium, but the areas are located in
relatively shallow areas. A number of areas further out from the coast are considered to have very
good conditions with regard to wind conditions. The coastal areas generally have slightly lower
wind conditions. However, coastal areas are considered to be favourable in terms of distance to
the connection point and transmission network.
The areas of size also have an impact on suitability and investment conditions. The energy areas
vary in size, from around 150 km2 to 1 500 km2, with an average size of around 500 km2, which is
larger compared to other plan areas. The areas, B159 and B164, each cover an area of more
than 1 000 km2.
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Depth conditions are important for the feasibility of wind power projects in terms of investment
costs and technology choices. At depths down to about 70 meters, construction is assumed
primarily with bottom-fixed foundations. At greater depths, mainly floating foundationsare
assumed. Bottom-fixed foundations can also be assumed to be relatively more likely to be
realised in the near future, compared to floating foundations, based on the degree of
establishment of the technology and the cost of establishment (Energy Authority, 2023a). The
variety of areas and a relatively high proportion of areas with average depths between 40 and 70
metres mean that the plan can be assessed as relatively favourable for energy establishment
from both a short and a long perspective.
Figure 37 below shows the surface distribution of the areas in terms of depth and foundation
depth. Depths vary within and between energy areas but about 90 percent are located at an
average depth of 40 to 70 meters. Half of these surfaces are assumed to be built with a mix of
foundations, suggesting that depth varies within these areas.
A smaller proportion, about 5 percent are located at the average depth shallower than 40 meters,
remaining just over 5 percent are located at depths greater than 70 meters. Approximately half of
the plan’s energy extraction areas, approximately 3 200 km2, are assumed to be suitable for wind
farms with bottom-fixed foundations. The remaining areas are expected to have a mix of bottom-
fixed and floating foundations.
Figure 37. Distribution of areas for energy extraction (km2), average depth and foundation type.
The distance of the areas to the connection point for electricity distribution is also important in
terms of investment costs. Where actual connection points may actually take place depends on a
number of factors and involves relatively large uncertainties. The distance to the connection point
depends, for example, on the location of the available connection point to the transmission
network, the depth conditions, as well as on the choice of technology and on the design and
possible location of storage and energy carriers, see also method section. Assessment of
distance is not included in the criteria assessment but is shown to some extent taking into
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account whether the energy area is located within the territorial sea or not. If areas are located in
the territorial sea is also relevant due to overlap with municipal planning, which can affect
decision-making and permit processes. In the area of the territorial sea where national, regional
and municipal plans overlap, all plans apply. More than 80 per cent of the area of energy areas is
located in an economic zone, see Figure 38 below.
Figure 38. Distribution of energy extraction areas (km2), territorial sea and exclusive economic zone.
Marine spatial plan, zero alternatives and guidance on energy extraction
Potential electricity production is estimated on the basis of surfaces for energy extraction to be
approximately 6,600 km2 corresponding to approximately 130 TWh, based on assumptions of 5
MW/km2 and 4,000 full load hours. The corresponding area for energy extraction in the baseline
scenario (permitted) is approximately 190 km2. A number of areas of national interest and public
interest of substantial importance for wind farms have been considered incompatible with other
uses. The original planning documents of substantial public interest identified 18 areas suitable
for offshore wind power in the Gulf of Bothnia, with a total area of approximately 9,100 km2.
During the planning process, these areas have been adjusted and some have been excluded
taking into account other interests such as commercial fishing, defence, recreation, cultural
environment and shipping. Total areas for energy extraction in the draft marine spatial plan, zero
alternatives, public interest of substantial importance, national interest claims, and adopted
marine spatial plan, see Table 19 below.
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Table 19. Estimated area for energy extraction in plan proposals, zero alternatives, public interest of substantial importance,
national interest claims and adopted marine spatial plan (Government, 2022).
Gulf of Bothnia, approximate area
Indicative basis for energy extraction (km2)
Plan proposal 6580
Zero alternatives (Permitted parks) 190
Public interest of substantial importance, Swedish Energy Agency 9 080
(2023b)
- Of which surface in planes; 6 030
National interest claims 1 340
- Of which surface in level, approx. km2 510
Plan adopted 1 520
The plan’s guidance on energy extraction, including consideration guidance, is considered to
contribute to the achievement of objectives for offshore wind energy. The plan is also expected to
contribute positively to increased predictability for the activities concerned, as well as as a
knowledge base for permit processes, regional and municipal planning. The areas that were
initially identified as suitable for energy extraction (the Swedish Energy Agency, 2023a) and
which during the planning process were assessed as not being the most suitable use, mean that
the total area for energy extraction has decreased, which can be assumed to potentially affect
activities in offshore wind power and affect other sectors in plan areas negatively.
Realisation, projects and bidding zones
A prerequisite for realising the marine spatial plan's energy areas is investment interest in the
construction and operation of wind farms. In principle, all energy areas in the plan area are
undergoing permit processes for the establishment of wind power.
Assumptions about potential electricity production and distribution between Sweden's bidding
zones can be made based on projectors applications and specified connection areas. According
to project information and investment data from the County Administrative Boards' interactive
map service Vindbrukskollen (Länsstyrelserna u.y.), approximately 80 percent of the potential
electricity production in the plan area is expected to be connected to bidding zone 2, see Figure
39 below. For more detailed information on electricity consumption and related to bidding zones
and users, see Section 2.4.1. Energy.
- 133 -
Figure 39. Assumptions on connection bidding zones.
Indirect impact - energy
Guidance on energy extraction in the marine spatial plan may involve indirect land claims for
cabling and other electricity transmission infrastructure and/or various forms of energy storage,
such as hydrogen. In turn, this may entail additional land and water claims and also potential
indirect environmental impacts and additional risk management on shore and land, see section
2.4.1. Energy. The extent of land claims on coast and land, and where these land claims will take
place, depends, among other things, on the type of technology and wind turbines, as well as
connection points or storage forms for each wind farm.
Achievement of objectives, national and municipal interests - energy
The plan proposal for the Gulf of Bothnia contributes to the achievement of the objectives of the
Government's current assignment to amend marine spatial plans for offshore wind power and
national energy policy objectives, as well as national targets on climate and fossil-free electricity
supply. It is also expected to contribute to the transformation of the industrial and transport
sectors and to strengthening the conditions for employment at local and regional level, see
Section 2.4.1. Energy.
With regard to essential functions and activities, according to national classification (MSB, 2021),
the plan proposal is expected to contribute to the conditions for ensuring electricity supply in the
country. However, there are some questions regarding the relatively large proportion of energy
areas located outside the territorial boundary, in the Swedish exclusive economic zone, regarding
potential risk and impact on the essential functions such as maintaining or ensuring, for example,
control and monitoring, and maintenance and fault repair of infrastructure.
- 134 -
For territorial sea areas, the national marine spatial plan overlaps with regional and municipal
plans. The plan's guidance on energy areas overlaps with municipal plans for the municipalities of
Kalix, Robertsfors, Hudiksvall, Söderhamn, Gävle, Älvkarleby, Tierp and Östhammar.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
Cumulative effects on areas for energy extraction can mean impacts between the areas, both
positive and negative. When establishing several areas nearby, there may be synergies in terms
of infrastructure and maintenance. Negative cumulative impacts can occur based on limitations
and scope of nearby wind farms, limitations in connection capacity, increased levels of conflicts of
interest and possible impact on wind conditions between the farms. This may be relevant both
nationally and in relation to the establishment of wind farms in neighbouring countries.
The plan’s guidance on energy extraction may also have an impact and have an impact on
neighbouring countries, similar to those identified at national level, mainly in Finland. This applies
cumulatively as individual impacts, such as impacts on shipping, especially with regard to winter
navigation, as well as nature values such as migratory birds and migratory routes between
countries. See the respective assessment for more information.
Recreation
The Gulf of Bothnia has a varied coastal landscape with high outdoor and nature values and
great potential for the development of the tourism industry in both summer and winter. The
Bothnian Bay archipelago with tour boat traffic and ice roads, the Haparanda Archipelago
National Park and the High Coast World Heritage Site are significant attractions. Hornslandet and
Gräsö archipelago are also popular areas for recreation.
In the Gulf of Bothnia's marine spatial plan area, there are two energy areas that are considered
to entail a risk of large negative effects on recreation: B108 and B142. These areas are
completely within the territorial boundary and are therefore relatively close to the coast. In
additional energy areas, the risk of negative effects on recreationis considered to be medium:
B111 and B156. Two energy areas are considered to give rise to a risk of a small negative effect:
B113 and B164. Two energy areas are considered to entail a risk of marginal effects on
recreation: B135 and B152. Four areas are not considered to have any effect on recreation
values: B149, B159, B160 and B161. In area B146, there are permits, and the area is included in
the zero alternative, therefore it is not subject to an impact assessment. Figure 40 below shows
the estimated negative impact of the respective energy area.
- 135 -
Figure 40. Potential negative effect on recreation of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows
great effect and light color shows little effect.
- 136 -
Area-specific assessments
Gulf of Bothnia
In the Gulf of Bothnia, B111 is considered to have a potential negative effect on national interest
claims for recreation and national interest for mobile recreation. Norrbotten's coast and
archipelago together with Haparanda Archipelago National Park north of the energy area have
great values for recreation and outdoor activities in the area include nature and cultural
experiences, swimming, canoeing, paragliding, recreational fishing and dog sledding. Values for
the experiences include low noise levels and attractive landscapes and further out in the coastline
there are values of stillness, silence and untouchedness. The B111 is located about 9.5
kilometres from the Haparanda Archipelago National Park and Malören, which are particularly
designated as important areas for recreation in the outer archipelago. The distribution of B111
means that parts of the area of national interest and the values of untouchedness, stillness and
landscape can be negatively affected. Cumulative impact on the experience values from wind
power installations should be taken into account.
The national interest claims for recreation Holmöarna islandsand Lövånger Coast include
activities such as boating, recreational fishing, bird watching, canoeing, skiing, ice skating and
hiking. Both areas have experience values such as stillness, silence, low noise and attractive
landscapes that may be affected by the establishment of wind power. B108 is located about 10.5
kilometers south and 9.5 kilometers north of the Lövånger coast and Holmöarna islands,
respectively. The energy area is considered to have a potential negative effect on national
interest claims for outdoor activities, as the proposed energy area is near the coast. For this area
together with B135 cumulative impacts need to be considered. In addition to the removal of B107
and B139 as energy areas in marine spatial plans proposal, B108 has been adjusted in southern
and northern parts of its extent.
Southern Bothnian Sea
In the Southern Bothnian Sea, B142 is expected to have a negative effect on national interest
claims for recreation Hudiksvall coast with Hornslandet located about 5.5 kilometers from B142.
In the area of national interest there are opportunities for various activities on land, including
snowshoeing, bird watching and cave visits, where the area of national interest also includes the
archipelago. Values that can be affected by the establishment of wind power are untouchedness,
stillness, silence, low noise and attractive landscape. The value description shows that the
Hudiksvall coast with Hornslandet is considered one of the most beautiful coastal sections in
Gävleborg County and at the same time one of the most valuable areas for outdoor activities and
recreation. The report Proposals for suitable energy extraction areas for marine spatial plans
(Energy Agency, 2023a) also notes that the area is relatively untouched and unexploited and has
a varied range of outdoor activities in a culturally, geologically and biologically interesting
environment. Exploitation and various types of installations (e.g. industrial installations) and
noise-generating activities (e.g. wind turbines) risk damaging these values. The area of national
interest is part of a preparatory phase for the establishment of a new national park.
Further south west of B156 there are national interest claims for recreation Nedre Dalälven and
Billudden with activities such as hiking, recreational fishing and running. The value description
states that the landscape is important and in the northern sub-area the view of the sea is
important. When exploiting or otherwise interfering with the environment, tourism and recreation,
in particular the interests of mobile recreation, shall be taken into account. The southern part of
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the B156 overlaps with the landscape protection area Öregrund and Östhammar. South of the
energy area there are national interest claims Öregrund-Gräsö archipelago with activities such as
ice skating, recreational fishing and boating. According to previous assessments, developments
within or in the immediate area in the form of infrastructure facilities and facilities could lead
primarily to the archipelago being exposed to sound or light pollution, changed landscapes or
other effects that could have negatively affected the perception of the national interest claim and
thereby damage its values. Öregrund-Gräsö archipelago is covered by the values of
untouchedness, stillness, silence, low noise and attractive landscape image.
Accessibility
Despite no direct overlap with energy areas and national interests for recreation in the Gulf of
Bothnia, the activities and experiences described as parts of the values can be affected,
especially the more sea-based, such as boating, recreational fishing and canoeing. In summary, it
is the more coastal energy areas that can affect accessibility and perceived accessibility,
especially B108 and B142.
Recreational shipping in the Gulf of Bothnia occurs mainly along the coastline, with most activity
in the North Bothnian Sea and the North Kvarken and the Southern Bothnian Sea. Based on
historical data on recreational boating activity, it is energy areas B152 and B156 that can affect
recreational shipping in the Gulf of Bothnia (Emodnet, 2022). B152 has tendencies towards north-
westerly – south-easterly routes that may affect accessibility and perceived accessibility in the
maritime area. The activity of recreational shipping can be viewed in a general way using
information from automatic identification systems (AIS data). Not all recreational craft use AIS,
which means that the actual prevalence of recreational craft is more extensive. See Figure 41
and Fel! Hittar inte referenskälla. for recreational boating in the Gulf of Bothnia.
- 138 -
Figure 41. Prevalence of recreational boating activity in proposed energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia based on an average of
hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022 (Emodnet, 2022).
- 139 -
Table 20. Prevalence of recreational boating activity in proposed energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia based on an average of
hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022. The data is based on activity from at least one leisure boat in the energy field
(Emodnet, 2022).
Energy area Recreational boat activity average hours/month 2017 - 2022
B108 0,2
B111 0,1
B113 0,1
B135 0,2
B142 0,6
B149 0,5
B152 2,2
B156 1,1
B159 0,9
B160 0,4
B161 0,3
B164 1,7
Other impacts on recreation
In the Gulf of Bothnia is the national park Haparanda archipelago with great values for recreation.
The entire Norrbotten archipelago offers recreation unique experiences. Sandskär's nature and
culture offer an attractive character, as well as good harbour and bathing places. Experiences
within the national park may be affected by energy area B111, not least visually in view of its
proximity of 10 kilometers. In the Southern Bothnian Sea there is a national interest for high-
exploited coastline (Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code) with direct overlap with the
south-eastern part of energy area B156. The national interest Arkösund to Forsmark includes
natural and cultural heritage values along the coastline and includes restrictions on industrial
plants that are subject to the government's permit assessment under Chapter 17 of the
Environmental Code. Within the area, the interests of recreation, primarily mobile recreation, must
be taken into account when assessing the admissibility of development companies or other
interventions in the environment.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
The cumulative effects of energy areas on recreation in the Gulf of Bothnia vary and are generally
considered to be small. The effects are mainly visual and concentrate on certain areas. In the
Bothnian Bay, the Norrbotten archipelago is expected to be affected cumulatively by B111 and
B113, where the effects are expected to be greater at the construction of both areas. In North
Kvarken, both B108 and B135 are expected to have cumulative effects on both the national
interest claims Lövångerkusten and Holmöarna, where B108 has a greater impact based on its
proximity to recreation areas. The Hudiksvall coastline with Hornslandet risks being affected
cumulatively by the establishment of B142 and B164. For Nedre Dalälven and Billudden, together
with the mobile recreation within Nedre Dalälven, it can be affected cumulatively by B152
together with B146, which is included in the zero alternative. B156 is expected to have cumulative
- 140 -
effects primarily on the risk interest claim for recreation Öregrunds-Gräsö archipelago and Nedre
Dalälven and Billudden.
For cumulative effects on specific national interests for recreationin the Gulf of Bothnia, the areas
of Norrbotten coast and archipelago, Lövånger coast, Holmöarna islands and Hornslandet that
could possibly have been affected by the establishment of energy areas are highlighted. To some
extent, the national interest claims Nedre Dalälven and Billudden and Öregrund-Gräsö
archipelago can also be affected by the establishment of wind power in B152 and B156.
Although all Finnish projects in Finland’s exclusive economic zone have been rejected pending
new legislation (Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment, 2024), Finnish energy areas could
potentially have some impact on recreation in Sweden, following their marine spatial plan 2030
(Marine spatial plan of Finland, 2021). The energy area outside Ijo-Simo in the northern Bothnian
Bay can have visual effects on the Haparanda Archipelago National Park, as well as national
interests in the Norrbotten Archipelago. Kvarken's northern offshore wind power area in North
Kvarken is located 22.5 kilometers from the national interest claim Holmöarna Islands, which can
have indirect effects on its values and experiences.
Energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia are expected to have a primarily visual impact on recreation
in Finland, not least the Bothnian Bay National Park and the Sea Lapland tourism and recreation
area, which is about 24 kilometres from the B111. The B108 is located about 22 kilometers from
the tourism and recreation area of the Kvarken Archipelago on the Finnish side, which can give
some visual effects. Crossings for pleasure boats to and from Finland are generally assessed to
be small throughout the marine spatial planning area, but with the highest concentration in North
Kvarken to and from Finland. The energy areas on both sides are not expected to have any major
consequences for recreational shipping to and from the countries.
Tourism
According to the coastal municipalities in the Gulf of Bothnia comprehensive plans, tourism is an
industry that the municipalities invest in. The coast, the archipelago, the untouched nature and
the open sea are seen as assets for the continued development of the tourism industry. Tourism
is also seen as a potential way to attract more people to settle in the area (Region Västerbotten,
u.y.). The conditions for the tourism industry are closely linked to qualities in the landscape,
conditions for recreation and cultural environments with the indirect consequence that where
there is a high risk of impact on these factors, there is also a risk of impact on the tourism
industry. However, according to research, there are uncertainties about what the impact on the
tourism industry might look like. One of the reasons is that people perceive wind power in
different ways (LTU, 2023). Studies suggest that the majority do not allow elements of wind farms
to influence the choice of destination. Some are attracted by wind turbines while others are
discouraged, see Section 2.4.2 Recreation. Most of those who choose to refrain a destination
because of visible wind turbines instead choose to visit a nearby destination. Furthermore, there
is disagreement in research as to whether or not wind turbines have a negative impact on
property prices (Bolin et al., 2021). There are studies that have been able to show reductions in
prices of up to 15 percent. There are also studies that have not been able to find a statistically
significant relationship between wind power establishment and property prices. A Danish study
showed an impact linked to onshore wind power but not from offshore wind power (Jensen et al.,
2018).
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Southern Bothnian Sea
The tourism industry is a growing industry according to the comprehensive plans for the area's
coastal municipalities. In the Gulf of Bothnia there are 13 energy areas, eight of which are located
in the Southern Bothnian Sea. About half of them are relatively coastal, while the other areas,
which are larger in area, are further out to sea. In one area (B146) there is a licensed wind farm.
The area is located about 14 kilometer from the coast, to the island of Storjungfrun it is about 3
kilometer. Areas B142, B152, B156 are located between 8 and 25 kilometer from the coast. The
impact on the tourism industry could consist of a redistributive effect where visitors opt out of
locations with visible wind turbines such as in the area around the southern parts of the Southern
Bothnian Sea and instead choose to locate their stay in another part of the Gulf of Bothnia or the
Baltic Sea.
Northern Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken
In the area around the High Coast, the tourism industry is important for the municipalities
concerned (Översiktsplan Kramfors kommun, 2013; Översiktsplan Örnsköldsvik Municipality,
2012). The area is covered by Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code, which means that
the interests of tourism and recreation must be taken into account in particular when assessing
the admissibility of development companies or other interventions in the environment. See
section 3.4.2 Recreation, for assessment outdoor activities. An energy area, B161 is located in
the North Bothnian Sea. The area is located at a great distance from the coast and is not
considered to have any impact on the landscape, recreation, cultural environment or shipping and
should therefore not have any impact on the tourism industry.
Gulf of Bothnia
The tourism industry is an industry that the regions in the area see as important to strengthen
(Swedish Lapland Visitors Board, 2024; Region Västerbotten Tourism, 2023). Activities linked to
the tourism industry create jobs, especially for young people, women and people with a foreign
background, groups that people are keen to choose to move to and stay in the region. In the Gulf
of Bothnia there are four energy areas. Two of them are located in the southern parts, one of
which, B108, is coastal and is located about 7 kilometers from the coast. There is a risk that there
may be a redistribution effect at local level if visitors choose to spend their stay elsewhere
because of the location of the wind turbines. The other two energy areas are higher up in the
northern part of the Bothnian Bay. B111 is located about 10 kilometers from Sandskär and 35
kilometers from Haparanda. B113 is located about 30 kilometers from the coast. Where there is a
negative impact on the landscape, recreation and cultural environment, there is also a risk of
negative impact on the tourism industry.
The area is home to the Norrbotten archipelago, which is covered by Chapter 4, Section 2 of the
Environmental Code. See section 3.4.2 for recreation assessment.
Defence
No assessment is made at marine spatial plan level for the interests of defence. See chapter
2.4.4 for general effects.
Shipping
Maritime traffic in the plan area is less intensive compared to other plan areas, but it is still
frequent and of great importance. The traffic includes both routes to and from ports within the
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plan area and between Sweden and Finland. Norrland's industries rely heavily on maritime
transport to reach consumers both within Sweden and internationally. This results in extensive
traffic to both Swedish and Finnish ports. Maritime transport plays a crucial role for regional
industry. It strengthens its accessibility and competitiveness and enables it to reach consumers in
Sweden and abroad on whom it depends. Maritime transport in the plan area, especially in the
North Bothnian Sea and the North Kvarken, faces several challenges:
• Navigation conditions - The level area has some limited manoeuvrability due to depth
conditions and narrow passages within the level area. Through North Kvarken, shipping is
conducted for safety reasons in a traffic separation system (TSS) because the passage is
narrow and shallow.
• Winter conditions - In the Bothnian Bay there are special conditions in winter with thick
and extensive sea ice. This affects the conditions for shipping, which needs large areas
and access to alternative shipping routes to ensure accessibility in the event of icing.
• Icebreaking - For the Gulf of Bothnia plan area, there are particular challenges and
uncertainties regarding winter navigation and icebreaking. Climate change is expected to
bring milder winters, but may still mean more complex ice formation with severe ice
conditions for icebreaking, for example through increased occurrence of ice
embankments.
Proposal for a marine spatial plan, energy extraction and shipping
The plan proposal for the Gulf of Bothnia will provide guidance on 13 areas for energy production,
corresponding to an area of approximately 6,600 km2, approximately 17 percent of the marine
spatial plan area. Marine spatial plans do not provide guidance on specific safety distances to
shipping, but these will be required for all areas using energy extraction. Safety distances shall be
adapted to local conditions according to risk assessment (Swedish Maritime Administration,
Swedish Transport Agency, 2023).
In the northern part of the plan area, the Bothnian Bay, two energy areas are guided, B111 and
B113. These areas are potentially likely to affect winter navigation, limiting the flexibility and need
for alternative routes needed by winter navigation and icebreaking. In a study conducted by
Chalmers, the risk of impact on winter navigation has been analyzed. The result shows that the
energy area B111 has a risk of relatively large impact while B113 has a risk of more limited
impact. During ice winters, icebreaking is carried out and often other areas are used than the
established fairways used during summer time, such as B111, B113, B135 (Ringsberg et al.,
2024).
Over North Kvarken, between Umeå and Vaasa in Finland, European route 12 runs via ferry line
and has shipping use in the plan. Umeå municipality's comprehensive plan points out a reserve
for the future fixed connection between Umeå and Vaasa. The Finnish marine spatial plan
identifies this route and Finland intends to investigate a functional connection.
Slightly further south, the energy areas B108 and B135 are located. All energy areas in the
northern plan area are located between ship routes and with maritime traffic to and from ports in
Finland, Haparanda and Luleå, Skellefteå, Umeå.
A larger spatial share of the marine spatial plan's proposed energy areas, approximately 4,660
km2, is distributed over eight energy areas in the Southern Bothnian Sea. There are several
fairways in the area, which means that all energy areas are adjacent to a fairway of varying
extent. A number of areas are located in clusters, which can have a multidimensional impact on
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maritime routes, i.e. wind farms on more sides of the fairway, this applies to areas B159, B160
and B164.
In the Southern Bothnian Sea, guidance is given on energy areas B149, B164 where the current
fairway is located and classified as a national interest. The fairway runs for northbound traffic
from South Kvarken, around eastern Finngrunden and up to Sundsvall harbour. The plan's
guidance remains from the decided plan and means that shipping must instead take the turn at
eastern Finngrunden and follow a northbound route and then turn off towards Sundsvall's port in
the northwest. The effect on shipping will be a longer mileage. The extended itinerary is
estimated to be around 15 kilometers. Traffic intensity in the fairway is estimated to be less
extensive, but may nevertheless affect shipping in the area and activities at local level. The main
maritime traffic is freight vessels, tankers and fishing vessels (EMODnet, 2022). Guidance on
energy areas B164 and B149 and extended distance can affect accessibility and also mean
indirect environmental impact and increased emissions.
Figure 42 below shows the potential effect of each energy sector on shipping in the Gulf of
Bothnia.
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Figure 42. Relative potential negative effect of energy areas on shipping in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect
and light color shows little effect.
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Indirect impact
A potential indirect impact may be an increased risk of allision, i.e. collision between ships and
wind turbines. Allision can have environmental effects such as oil spills, etc. Other potential
indirect impacts from guidance in areas of energy concern general accessibility for rescue and
remediation work in maritime accidents at sea. For more information, see section 2.4.4 Defence
and the Swedish Maritime Administration’s and the Swedish Transport Agency’s knowledge base
on offshore wind power (Ahlström 2023, and the Swedish Maritime Administration and the
Swedish Transport Agency 2023).
Further information on spatial analyses of shipping in the area can be found in the Lighthouse
report Maritime interest in sea space in light of an increased expansion of wind power (Hjerpe
Olausson, J. et al.,2024).
Assessment Marine Spatial Plan
The plan's guidance on energy areas is considered to constitute a potential impact on shipping,
primarily with regard to energy areas B149 and B164, which are located in existing national
interest claims for shipping. The plan's guidance with several energy areas in the southern
Bothnian Sea also risks having a potential cumulative effect on shipping. If several nearby energy
areas are realized, this may mean that areas adjoin fairways sideways in several directions, such
as the B159 and B160.
Possible indirect effects and environmental effects are increased accident risk, taking into
account the increased number of fixed installations at sea, the risk of collision during crowding,
and the risk of impact on the availability and aggravation of rescue operations.
The challenge for shipping in the entire plan area is also uncertainties regarding the impact on
winter navigation. This may be particularly relevant for the northern plan areas and energy areas
B111, B113 and B135, which risks limiting shipping and the flexibility of icebreaking activities for
alternative shipping routes and icebreaking.
In the marine spatial planning area there is uncertainty regarding the impact of wind power
expansion on ice formation, which has consequences for both energy expansion and shipping.
The use of shipping in the marine spatial plan is based on national interest claims for shipping
that coincide in large parts with established shipping lanes and shipping routes, except in the
South Bothnian Sea. It is estimated that the potential impact on shipping is medium. Assessment
is made partly on the basis of the impact on national interest claims, energy areas B149 and
B164, and taking into account uncertainties and potential impact of winter navigation especially
areas in the northern planning area (B111, B113 and B135).
Cumulative and transboundary effects
Potential impact on Swedish and international shipping is assumed to be limited on the basis that
the recommendation and permit for the establishment of wind farms take into account the
required safety distances. However, uncertainties remain regarding winter navigation and further
knowledge is needed to facilitate coexistence in the plan area. The same assessment also
applies to shipping to and from neighbouring countries, mainly to and from Finland.
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Commercial fishing
Swedish commercial fishing in the Gulf of Bothnia is sparse in the open sea, but more frequent in
the coastal waters. The economically most important species are vendace, salmon and herring,
where fishing for vendace and salmon takes place outside the marine spatial plan area closer to
the coast. At times, pelagic fishing takes place in the Southern Bothnian Sea, mainly around the
offshore banks and in the south-eastern parts of the sea area. There is also bottom trawling.
Fishing is clearly seasonal, as the area is ice-covered for parts of the year. In addition to Swedish
fishing for Baltic herring, there is also extensive Finnish Baltic herring fishing in the area (Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).
Impact on commercial fisheries
In the southern Bothnian Sea there are three areas of national interest for commercial fishing in
the marine spatial plan area, see Figure 41. At Finngrunden there is a spawning and nursery area
for fish. The area is partly covered by a Natura 2000 site and the entire area B157 is listed as use
nature in the marine spatial plan. The other two areas of national interest are catch areas and are
located west and east of Finngrunden. The marine spatial plan indicates the use of commercial
fishing for these areas. With this national interest, the marine spatial plan meets the demand for
commercial fishing.
The plan’s guidance on other uses, such as energy, affects the conduct of commercial fisheries
outside identified risk interest claims. This is particularly true in the Southern Bothnian Sea, where
several energy areas in the plan proposal are located. The actual impact depends on
opportunities for coexistence and adaptations such as the design of wind farms or of commercial
fishing, spatially or regarding fishing methods. The total landing value for Swedish trawl fisheries
for pelagic species in Sweden’s territorial waters and exclusive economic zone was annually on
average approximately SEK 36 million over the period 2013-2023 (Waldo S. & Blomquist J.,
2024b).
In all energy areas of the Southern Bothnian Sea, pelagic fishing has taken place in the period
2013-2023, but to a very different extent. Based on the assumption that each trawl line passing
through the proposed energy areas is affected by an establishment, the impacted landing value
represents approximately 12 percent of the landing value from Sweden's territorial sea and
exclusive economic zone in the Gulf of Bothnia. If Swedish fishing in the Finnish zone is included,
the proportion decreases. This proportion should also be seen in the light of the fact that vessels
fish pelagically both in the Gulf of Bothnia and in the Baltic Sea. Fishing in the Baltic Sea is not
affected by the proposed marine spatial plan, as no new areas for energy extraction are proposed
in the Baltic Sea. The total average annual landing value of catches from pelagic pelagic pelagic
trawls in the Baltic Sea was about five times higher than in the Gulf of Bothnia during the period.
The actual impact will depend on opportunities to continue fishing in the area and to move
operations to other locations (Waldo S. & Blomquist J. 2024a).
The energy areas that could have the greatest impact on fisheries based on landing values in
2013-2023 are energy area B164, and area B149, where fishing with trawls for pelagic species is
conducted. It is difficult to fish with pelagic pelagic trawls in a wind farm. The establishment of
wind power is likely to exclude trawl fisheries for pelagic species in these energy areas (Waldo S.
& Blomquist J. 2024a).
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Table 21. Landing value from Swedish fisheries affected by energy areas in millions of SEK (mkr) and percentage (%) of total
landing value, for the Gulf of Bothnia. Annual averages 2013-2023.
Share of landing Landing value Share of landing
value from including part of value incl. share of
Landing value Swedish fishing in other fishing in other
from Swedish territorial waters countries' countries'
Landing value territorial waters and exclusive territorial sea and territorial sea and
affected by and exclusive economic zone exclusive economic zone
Type of energy areas economic zone affected by economic zone affected by energy
fishing (SEK million) (SEK million) energy areas total (SEK million) areas
Trawl fishing
pelagic
species
(floating
trawl and
bottom trawl)
in the Gulf of
Bothnia 4,5 36 12% 45 10%
Source: Waldo, S. & Blomquist, J., 2024b How is Swedish fishing affected by offshore wind power? Supplementary material
(AgriFood Report, no. 2024:2). AgriFood Economics Centre.
The impact assessment is based on the landing value generated by the trawl lines that partially or
fully pass through the energy area. The areas are not classified as national interests, but fishing
with both pelagic trawls and bottom trawls for pelagic species is carried out in the areas.
The plan proposal includes an expansion of areas in the Gulf of Bothnia with particular
consideration to high nature values with regard to migratory birds, soft bottom and reef
environment. Areas with special nature considerations can in the long term, depending on the
nature value the consideration refers to, benefit commercial fishing based on potentially
enhanced ecosystem services.
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Figure 43. The map shows proposed energy areas, use of commercial fishing and national interest claims for commercial fishing
in the Gulf of Bothnia. The figure also shows the impact as a percentage of the total annual landing value (pelagic floating or
bottom trawl) per energy area.
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Indirect environmental impact of land and water use
The guidance provided by the marine spatial plan and the potential impact on commercial
fisheries may also have indirect environmental effects. Changes in the spatial and intensity of
commercial fishing may involve a shift in fishing activity to other areas, possibly with longer
driving distances and increased air emissions, such as greenhouse gases. It may affect the
conditions for commercial fishing if operating costs increase due to longer distance and driving
time and/or income decreases due to reduced catch. Actual outcomes and indirect environmental
impact regarding the impact on mileage and air emissions are considered uncertain and also due
to the development and conversion of the fleet to more energy efficient and fossil-free fuels.
The area is mainly fishing with pelagic trawls, but also some fishing with bottom trawls.
Potentially, this may mean that the impact on benthic habitats is expected to decrease in the
energy areas where bottom trawling no longer takes place. However, the gross effect is mainly
local and the overall net effect of reduced impact on benthic habitats depends on whether and to
which other areas a possible relocation of bottom trawling takes place.
National, regional, municipal interests
The plan's guidance on the use of commercial fishing confirms national interest claims for
commercial fishing. However, guidance on the use of energy may to some extent affect the
conduct of commercial fishing in the plan area. The impact on commercial fishing can also affect
activities and value chains dependent on marine resources, as well as other activities and
facilities for landing and processing fishery resources. This includes, for example, port activities of
local and regional interest in the plan area, as well as essential functions related to food security
and primary production (see section 2.4.6. Commercial fishing).
For the marine spatial planning area, it is primarily Gävle municipality and the landing port
Norrsundet whose landings come from fishing that has been carried out in any of the proposed
energy areas that are affected. This may indirectly affect other operations that depend on certain
landing volumes. In Norrsundet, 17.9 percent of the landed value comes from fishing that has
been conducted in energy areas (Waldo S. & Blomquist J., 2024a) The actual impact on landings
depends on the ability of the fishery to conduct fishing in places other than the energy areas.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
In addition to Swedish fishing, extensive Finnish fishing is taking place throughout the Gulf of
Bothnia. Fishing takes place mainly in the southern Bothnian Sea and is believed to be affected
by guidance on energy extraction in the area. The extent of the impact is difficult to assess, but is
assumed to be mainly affected by energy areas located in the exclusive economic zone, such as
area B156 which is located in both the economic and territorial sea and area B161 in the
exclusive economic zone. The total potential impact on commercial fishing is therefore
significantly higher than if one only looks at Swedish commercial fishing in the plan area.
Limited Swedish commercial fishing is carried out in two energy areas in the Finnish marine
spatial plan, Archipelago Sea and the Southern Bothnian Sea (Finnish Marine spatial plan, 2021).
The impact on commercial fishing of all energy areas in the marine spatial plan for the Gulf of
Bothnia is assessed to have some impact on the conduct of commercial fishing in the plan area,
mainly in the case of Swedish pelagic fishing for herring,
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However, not all areas of energy in the marine spatial plan are assumed to be realised, and the
actual impact and aggravation on the conduct of commercial fishing depend on which areas of
energy are actually realised, as well as on opportunities for coexistence. Examples of different
types of adaptation are: the design of the wind farm, adaptations in fisheries, e.g. fishing
methods, as well as possibilities for relocation of fisheries to other areas.
The total potential impact on landing values and related activities for all fisheries may be
significantly higher due to the existence of extensive Finnish fisheries.
Potential impact on commercial fishing, is also considered to entail indirect effects in terms of
fishing value chains, processing industry, affected landing ports and municipal interests. See
chapter 2.4.6. about national and municipal interests.
In terms of effects on the profitability of fishing enterprises, these depend on the extent to which
fishing can move, how landings are affected and whether the costs of fishing operations change.
The impact on individual companies depends on how their fishing patterns may need to be
changed.
Reindeer husbandry
In the Gulf of Bothnia, it is relevant to highlight potential consequences for reindeer husbandry
because there are designated national interest claims under Chapter 3, Section 5, and large-
scale establishment of offshore wind power can affect reindeer husbandry. The impact can be
visual, both from the turbines and the obstacle lighting as well as noise from construction and
maintenance. Increased expansion of infrastructure linked to energy transfer on land such as
cables, wires, transformers, together with other exploitation can contribute to deteriorating
conditions for reindeer husbandry. Reindeer tend to avoid areas with wind power exploitation on
land (Naturvårdsverket 2018, Skarin A. 2018), and the same may apply if the exploitation in the
sea affects areas where reindeer graze on the coast and in the archipelago. Coastal pastures and
archipelago islands are particularly important winter pastures as the milder coastal climate offers
better conditions than inland lands that may be covered by thick snow cover and ice that makes it
difficult for reindeer to graze the ground lichen (Sametinget, 2024, personal communication).
The energy areas B111 and B113 in the Bothnian Bay are within 10 kilometers, respectively 50
kilometers distance to the coast and national interest for reindeer husbandry. Area B111 can
have visual effects, and risks disturbing reindeer. Effects that could arise are displacement from
important pastures and, in the long term, a change in the Sami cultural landscape and cultural
heritage. B113 could be perceived, but the visual impact is estimated to be relatively small. Of the
remaining energy areas in the North and South of the Gulf of Bothnia, the B107, B139 and B108
are located between 12 kilometres and 20 kilometres from the coast, but they have no direct
visual impact as the landscape and terrain between the coast and areas of national interest are
hilly. The southernmost energy areas of the Gulf of Bothnia are so far away from reindeer herding
areas that they should not be affected. Infrastructure building in connection with these energy
areas will probably also end up south of Sundsvall, and is therefore not expected to have any
impact.
The consequences of establishing offshore wind farms in areas that affect reindeer husbandry
mean that it may be more difficult to conduct reindeer husbandry. Reindeer herding is linked to
several different values in society, both intangible such as cultural heritage, identity, landscape
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and also material such as employment and food production. There are several factors that affect
reindeer husbandry, where climate change is a factor that leads to more uncertain conditions in
the longer term. Reindeer herding has a strong connection to the natural landscape and risks
being affected to a large extent by climate-related effects. Consequences of exploitation resulting
from energy extraction should be seen in a holistic perspective, where cumulative consequences
of exploitation need to be investigated.
Impact during construction, operation and decommissioning
Table 22. Impact on reindeer husbandry in different phases, as well as possible consideration measures.
Phase Type of impact Possible consideration measure
Facility Increased traffic Time adjustment after reindeer husbandry
Noise
Operation Visual impact of wind turbines Location of wind turbines
Visual impact obstacle lighting Wind farm design
Impact on ice conditions
Settlement Increased traffic Time adjustment after reindeer husbandry
Noise
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Overall assessment Gulf of Bothnia
Nature and ecological aspects
The biodiversity and species composition of the Gulf of Bothnia is unique in view of the specific
conditions prevailing in terms of, for example, salinity and contact with a large number of
freshwater bodies. Fish stocks are generally relatively weak, and migratory salmon need to be
taken into account. In the Bothnian Bay there is a unique population of ringed seals where the
population is stable, but the species has been exposed to environmental toxins and the
reproduction rate is weakened. Ringed seals depend on a stable ice sheet for breeding and
rearing young. There are several important areas for both migratory and wintering birds. In the
proposed marine spatial plan, the area for areas with particular consideration to high nature
values has been increased with a focus on birds, ringed seals, and bottom habitats at Ulvödjupet.
Together with other consideration areas and areas with the use nature in the adopted marine
spatial plan, these are considered to signal the need for special protection and consideration
when planning and regulating human activities. The new proposed areas can be seen as a
complement to area protection, contributing to green infrastructure and ecosystem services and
sustainable use in the Gulf of Bothnia.
The marine spatial plan provides guidance for extensive energy expansion in the Gulf of Bothnia,
and this may entail the risk of major negative effects for birds, especially in the southern part.
Western and Eastern Finngrunden are important for both wintering and migratory bird
populations. Wind power expansion in connection with Finngrunden risks displacing birds living in
the area. There is also a risk of collision with migratory birds as the proposed areas are adjacent
to a migratory route towards Finland. Large-scale energy expansion is also negative for the
ringed seal, as there is a risk that wind farms in the Bothnian Bay will affect the sea ice on which
it depends for its reproduction. For benthic habitats, larger surface claims generally mean greater
negative impact, but overall, the assessment is that the plan proposal has a small negative effect
on the benthic habitat and that local adaptation can be made when planning. Similarly, it is
considered that the risk of negative impact on fish spawning can be minimised by adapting the
construction time to the spawning period for herring and vendace for wind power projects in
energy areas close to the coast.
Recreation, cultural environment and landscape
Norrbotten is home to the Haparanda Archipelago, an area with high values for recreation and the
cultural environment, including the Haparanda Archipelago National Park. At the same level as
Umeå, there is Lövångerkusten and the Holmöarna islands, which are national interests for
recreation. Further south is the High Coast World Heritage Site, which possesses unique qualities
that are essential for the national recreation, the regional tourism industry, where the area is also
an important cultural environment. The southern Bothnian Sea is home to Hornslandet, which is
in the process of becoming a new national park thanks to its high natural and cultural heritage
values.
In the proposed plan for the Gulf of Bothnia, a number of proposed energy areas are located
within 25 kilometers of the coast: one at Haparanda archipelago, one at Holmöarna islands and
several in the southern Bothnian Sea. Energy areas that are well within sight of the coast have a
risk of having a major impact on cultural environments and recreation values. Landscape impact
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is also considered to be greatest in the southern Bothnian Sea. This risk is particularly high if
several energy areas are established. There is a small risk of impact on recreational boat traffic in
the areas of North Kvarken and along the Gävle and northern Uppland coasts, as some energy
areas are located near the coast and near routes for recreational boats.
Energy extraction, shipping and commercial fishing
The marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia will provide guidance on 13 areas for energy
production, which corresponds to approximately 17 percent of the marine spatial plan area.
Energy areas in the territorial sea are located in the municipalities of Kalix, Robertsfors,
Hudiksvall, Söderhamn, Gävle, Älvkarleby, Tierp and Östhammar. In general, the energy areas in
the Gulf of Bothnia have good conditions for energy extraction, however, relatively lower than
other marine areas in terms of wind conditions, but a relatively large area in shallow areas and in
the southern Bothnian Sea relatively close to the coast. In some areas suitable for energy, other
uses have been given priority, which may negatively affect the industry, affected companies in
wind power planning in the planning area.
In the Gulf of Bothnia, there is uncertainty regarding the impact of wind power expansion on ice
formation, which can have consequences for both energy expansion and shipping. The use of
shipping in the marine spatial plan is based on national interest claims for shipping that largely
coincide with established shipping lanes and shipping routes. In two energy areas in the Southern
Bothnian Sea, however, guidance on the use of energy is given priority over the national interest
claim for shipping, which means a changed route for the shipping concerned. The overall
assessment of the potential impact on shipping in the plan area is difficult to make based on
uncertainties regarding the impact on winter navigation. In addition to this uncertainty, potential
impacts are considered to be medium, both for Swedish and international shipping, based on
uncertain cumulative impacts on shipping and uncertain conditions for winter navigation. The plan
indicates that safety distances must be decided when designing and licensing the wind farms.
It is not expected that there will be any negative impact on Swedish commercial fishing in the
Bothnian Bay or the North Bothnian Sea. In the Southern Bothnian Sea, however, the impact on
commercial fishing is estimated to be medium for pelagic trawl fisheries and Finnish fisheries
conducted in the area. Potential impact on commercial fishing is also considered to have indirect
effects on fishing and its value chains, the processing industry, affected landing ports and
municipal interests.
Aggregated assessment of energy areas
In the impact assessment, negative and positive impacts have been assessed on a scale from 0
to 4. The purpose is to show the risk of impact on the assessment aspect, such as bird or cultural
environment. It is a complex task to make an overall assessment for an energy area in terms of
the cumulative impact an energy area has on different assessment aspects and interests. This is
due to several factors, including the degree of detail and quality of the knowledge base differing
between different assessments, as well as the challenge of comparing widely different types of
effects and consequences. At the same time, it is essential that the impact assessment provides
an overall picture. Table 23 below shows all assessments by energy area in the marine spatial
plan area of the Gulf of Bothnia. The table aims to give an overview and an indication that some
energy areas have a greater risk of negative effects than others.
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Table 23. The table shows, in colour scale, assessments for all assessment aspects that have potential adverse effects. The
table also shows a column where the values have been summarised, both in total and by nature and ecological aspects,
maritime transport and commercial fisheries.
Recreation, Cultural
Ecology Sectors environment and Landscape
Fish and Professio Cultural
Benthic fish Migratory Bird, over- Marine nal Recrea environ
Area habitats spawning Bats bird wintering mammals Shipping fishing tion ment Landscape
B108
B111
B113
B135
B142
B146
(permit)
B149
B152
B156
B159
B160
B161
B164
Assessment scenarios show potential distribution of cumulative effects
As it is unclear which energy areas are ultimately being built, it is difficult to draw conclusions on
the actual distribution of impacts. Two different assessment scenarios have been developed
showing potential deployment taking into account different interests (see section 1.3.3.
Assessment scenarios). The ‘Nature and Culture’ scenario shows an expansion that has taken
into account the values of nature and cultural environments. The expected energy production
would be approximately 107 TWh, which is a large amount of potential energy production. At the
same time, the most negative effects on, for example, the ringed seal in the north, migratory bird
routes in the Southern Bothnian Sea and the impact on coastal cultural environments in the
Haparanda Archipelago, the North Kvarken and the Gulf of Gävle are avoided. In the central parts
of the Bothnian Sea is remains an extensive cluster of energy areas that are located far from the
coast and have the potential to contrubute to the transition to more sustainable energy
production.
The ‘Maritime and Commercial Fishing’ scenario shows an expansion that would generate about
102 TWh, i.e. a large amount of energy, while avoiding areas that are particularly important for
commercial fishing. Expansion under the scenario "Shipping and Commercial fishing" would also
mean that negative consequences for shipping are avoided as energy areas that could lead to
increased mileage disappear. However, the risk of potential and uncertain impact on winter
navigation remains with expansion in the northern parts.
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Figure 44. Demonstrates what an offshore wind development could look like in the Gulf of Bothnia if greater consideration were
taken to avoid negative impacts on nature and culture values based on the impact assessment.
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Figure 45. The map shows what an expansion of offshore wind power could look like in the Gulf of Bothnia if greater
consideration were taken to avoid negative impacts on values for shipping and commercial fishing based on the impact
assessment.
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Cross-border cumulative effects
Cumulative effects in the Gulf of Bothnia can mainly occur in relation to the impact on birds,
ringed seals, fish, landscapes, cultural environments, recreation, water (hydrography),
commercial fishing and shipping.
The planned energy establishment of neighbouring countries can mainly contribute to cumulative
impacts on birds, bats, ringed seals, fish, commercial fisheries, energy and shipping.
Continued co-operation and dialouge with neighbouring countries is necessary to assess
cumulative impacts from a sea basin perspective.
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Figure 46. Map of proposed energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia and energy expansion plans of neighbouring countries. Source:
EMODnet, 2022, Flanders Marine Institute, 2023.
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Impact assessment of marine spatial plan for the
Baltic Sea
Impact on population and health
The uses that can have an impact on population and human health are guidance on energy use,
sand extraction and guidance on changing mileage for shipping. The guidance on sand extraction
and shipping lanes has not changed since the previous marine spatial plan, and the assessment
presented in the sustainability assessment of decided marine spatial plans in 2019 is still up to
date (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019b). The previous sustainability
report assesses the risk of health effects from the guidance on shipping as insignificant taking
into account negligible changes in emissions of airborne pollutants (Swedish Agency for Marine
and Water Management, 2019b). Sand extraction activities at Utklippan, Sandhammar Bank and
Sandflyttan according to the marine spatial plan’s guidance on sand extraction are assessed to
have a marginal negative impact on air quality locally (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management, 2019b), but this is a transitory effect and without a closer estimate of air emissions
it is not possible to assess any risks to human health.
The Baltic Sea is the only marine spatial planning area in Sweden that has offshore wind power in
operation, outside the city of Malmö and off the coast of Öland. The zero alternative also includes
the energy area where the Kriegers Flak project has a permit to construct offshore wind power,
see Figure 47 below. In the draft marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea, only energy areas where
there are permits for the establishment of offshore wind power remain. The background to the
Government's decision to reject all applications for offshore wind farms in the sea area is the
overall assessment that there are currently no conditions for using energy extraction in addition to
existing permits in the Baltic Proper due to the interests of defence (Ministry of Climate and
Industry 2024; Government 2024d).
The already adopted marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea from 2022 included the energy area
Södra Midsjöbanken, which in the current proposal is removed. It is not possible to derive any
direct or indirect effects on population and health from this change in the marine spatial plan in
the Baltic Sea.
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Figure 47. Map showing distances from energy areas to agglomerations in the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area. Source:
Statistics Sweden, 2020.
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Effects on protected animal or plant species and
biodiversity
Birds
Through large parts of the southern and central Baltic Sea, broad migratory bird paths run in a
southwest-northeast direction from south of Skåne, through southern Hanö Bay, past Öland and
Gotland, and further towards the Gulf of Finland and South Kvarken. The route covers several
million individuals annually in both spring and autumn. In addition to this broad route, narrow
passages over the sea, so-called bottlenecks, are particularly important migratory routes for
terrestrial birds and bats that largely avoid flying over the open sea. Known bottlenecks in the
Baltic Sea are Öresund, Kalmarsund-Öland-Gotland and Södra Kvarken. The establishment of
offshore wind power in the proposed energy areas located within the broad strip and the known
bottlenecks is therefore intended to entail a risk of high or medium impact on birds.
The potential positive environmental effects of moving the shipping currently operating through
Hoburg Shoal and Midsjöbankarna to a deep water route south and east of the banks were
reported in the environmental impact assessment of the adopted marine spatial plans (Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019a). Based on conclusions from previous studies
and results from Symphony, it was concluded that the transfer of shipping from the banks was the
most favorable option for the protection of endangered species of birds and marine mammals and
for reducing the cumulative environmental impact of shipping. As the guidance on the
investigation area for shipping remains unchanged, the conclusions are considered to apply to
the present proposal for a marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea.
The long-tailed duck is one of the species with wintering areas of global importance in the Baltic
Sea. The species is classified as highly endangered in its wintering areas. The Natura 2000 site
Hoburg Shoal and Midsjöbankarna are one of the most important wintering areas for algae in the
world (Larsson, 2018) with about 25 percent of the entire northern European and western
Siberian population wintering at Hoburg’s Shoal (Skov et al., 2011). Long-tailed ducks migrates
from its breeding areas to the embankments in the autumn and remains there until spring. There
are also other wintering seabirds in the area, including black guillemot, common scoter, velvet
scoter, common guillemot and razorbill.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
Since no wind power is proposed in the Swedish part of the marine spatial plan area, the
neighbouring countries' planning for wind power constitutes the cumulative risk of impact. South
of Skåne, there are established wind power on both the Danish and German sides as well as
plans for further establishment. The cumulative effect on birds is expected to be smaller when no
potential negative impact can occur on the Swedish side according to the plan proposal. There is
still a risk of cumulative impact due to the fact that many other wind farms are currently being
established and many energy areas are identified that concern the same migratory route,
including Estonia, Denmark and Germany, but the birds are also affected much further south as
many that pass are long-distance species.
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A large energy area west of Saaremaa, Estonia, may to some extent affect the route that crosses
the Baltic Sea towards Gotland. There are many designated energy areas in the southern Baltic
Sea (Arkona Basin) that can pose a high risk of negative impact if all of them are built.
Bats
In the Baltic Sea, the risk of impact on bats is greatest south of Skåne and between Öland and
Gotland. As no energy areas are included in the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan, bats are not
expected to be negatively affected by offshore wind power from the Swedish side.
Marine mammals
Grey seals, harbour seals and Belt Sea and Baltic Sea harbour porpoises are found in the Baltic
Sea.
Common seal
In Kalmarsund there is also a small isolated population with harbour seals that are red-listed in
the vulnerable category. According to published studies (Stanley et al., 1996; Goodman, 1998)
the Kalmar Strait stock is the genetically most deviant among European harbour seals. The stock
has probably been isolated from other harbour seal populations for at least 6 000 years.
Grey seal
Grey seals are common in the Baltic Sea. It can be disturbed and intimidated by underwater
noise but is not as noise sensitive as the harbour porpoise.
Harbour porpoise
According to the results of the SAMBAH project, harbour porpoises from the Baltic Sea
population accumulate during the summer in the area on and between the banks of the central
Baltic Sea (Hoburg’s Shoal, North Midsjöbank and South Midsjöbank). Summer is the time when
the harbour porpoise is most susceptible to disturbance because it calves in June-July and mates
in August. The porpoise suckles its calf for up to ten months and for at least the first six months
from birth the calf is assumed to be so dependent on the female that any separation may be
critical. For these reasons, the area is a very important area for the Baltic Sea's critically
endangered harbour porpoise population.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
Negative cumulative effects on harbour porpoises may occur at the South Midsjöbank, where
Poland has a larger number of energy areas in its marine spatial plan. The areas of the Slupsk
embankment are not as significant during the summer reproduction period of the harbour
porpoise.
Risk of negative cumulative effects on harbour porpoises from wind power in Danish and German
waters. Most importantly, establishment does not take place at the same time because the
construction phase has the greatest negative impact.
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Benthic habitats
Some deeper parts of the Baltic Sea have for a long period been negatively affected by oxygen
deficiency and are therefore considered to lack nature values. Natural bottom substrates in the
Baltic Sea consist largely of soft bottoms with clay as well as sand, gravel and stone.
Fish and spawning grounds
In the current proposal for an amended marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea, guidance on sand
extraction is considered to entail a risk of impact on fish. The guidance is the same as in the
adopted marine spatial plan, which is why the conclusions in the respective environmental impact
assessment are considered to apply (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management,
2019a).
When sand is extracted at Utklippan, it is considered that increased turbidity can occur locally.
The effect is considered to be short-lived as the sediment consists mainly of coarse-grained sand
and gravel (Swedish Geological Survey, 2017). Even if the area is outside the cod spawning
area, cod larvae can drift into the area (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department
of Aquatic Resources, 2018). The larvae are sensitive to suspended sediment at higher
concentrations, which is why extraction should preferably be paused during those times of the
year when there are cod larvae in the water. The area is also part of an important growing area
for cod, and the bottom is probably used by flatfish. Based on the uncertainty about the design of
the activity and its specific effects on fish and fish habitats, and taking into account the
precautionary principle, it is considered that the effect of proposed sand extraction activities in
Utklippan could lead to moderately negative effects on fish. The effects are considered to be most
local and reversible in the short term based on the geographical scope of the activity in relation to
the marine spatial planning area and alternative spawning grounds for the affected species.
Specific effects on fish and in particular fish spawning should be further investigated in the
licensing process.
However, the proposed sand extraction at Sandhammar embankment, south of Ystad, is not
expected to have any specific effects on fish. According to previous assessments, the area does
not host any particularly valuable habitat types, but it is considered to be a foraging area for
flatfish (Swedish Geological Survey, 2017). The area is characterised by high sediment mobility
and sand extraction is estimated to be compensated by the accumulation of sand from the upper
part of the bank. High substrate dynamics and large temporal variation in the bottom fauna make
it difficult to assess the specific effects of quarrying on biodiversity.
Locally large negative environmental effects are expected to occur in connection with the
proposed sand extraction at Sandflyttan southwest of Falsterbo. Disturbance to sensitive habitats
for affected fish species such as cod and flatfish should be minimised by avoiding periods of
sensitive life stages for the species, as well as by distributing sand extraction so that the risk of
oxygen-poor pits does not arise (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of
Aquatic Resources, 2018). In view of the high nature values in the local area, sand extraction
activities are considered to have moderate to large negative effects on fish, but specific effects
need to be investigated within the framework of Natura 2000 permit assessment. Increased
turbidity is expected to occur locally during sand extraction, but is not expected to be long-lasting
given the grain size of the sediment, so the effect is considered to be local and small in relation to
the marine spatial plan area as a whole.
- 164 -
Guidance on particular consideration for high nature values in the application of the plan may
contribute to a small positive effect on the fish resource. Adaptations relate, for example, to
reduced by-catch or reduced impact on the seabed during bottom trawling. However, whether
and, if so, how such provisions could be introduced is impossible to predict at the current
juncture, and thus also the potential positive effects on fish.
Impact of proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature
values
For the Baltic Sea, the plan proposal includes a number of additional areas for particular
consideration of high nature values (small n areas). The energy area Ö283 south of Skåne is
proposed as an area for particular consideration for high nature values in order to strengthen
particular consideration for migratory birds and meet up with the migratory bird path Rügen –
Skåne, which is marked in the German marine spatial plan.
The areas for general use, shipping and commercial fishing (Ö258 and Ö259) between
Hanöbukten and Midsjöbankarna have mainly been proposed as areas for particular
consideration of high nature values with regard to the Baltic Sea population of harbour porpoises.
Södra Midsjöbanken (Ö248) is an area for particular consideration of high nature values in the
adopted marine spatial plan, but is also proposed as a Natura 2000 area under the Birds
Directive designated for seabirds, long-tailed ducks and black guillemot. Several areas around
Gotland are included in proposals for new Natura 2000 areas under the Birds Directive. West of
Gotland, this applies to parts of areas Ö291 and Ö500 around Stora Karlsö. East of Gotland it
applies to the areas Ö500 and Ö296 along the east coast.
Northwest of Gotska Sandön, an area with use defence (Ö505) and one with general use (Ö506)
has been supplemented as areas for particular consideration for high nature values with a focus
on birds, and east of Muskö, an area with general use (Ö507) is proposed as an area for
particular consideration for high nature values.
Application of particular consideration for high nature values is considered relevant for the new
areas with the designation small n in the Baltic Sea as guidance for uses such as commercial
fishing and shipping. In practice, it can contribute to better conditions for biodiversity conservation
and green infrastructure as a basis for developed ecosystem services. Figure 48 shows the areas
with nature use and particular consideration for high nature values within the marine spatial plan
area of the Baltic Sea.
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Figure 48. Areas using nature (N) and decided on the respective proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high
nature values (n) in the Baltic Sea (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2024c).
- 166 -
Effects on land, soil, water, air, climate, landscape,
settlement and cultural environment
Water and air
In the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area, it is the marine spatial plan's guidance on energy
extraction, sand extraction and investigation area for shipping that is considered to have effects
on water and air. The guidance in these areas does not differ from the marine spatial plan already
adopted, except that an energy area in the Southern Baltic Sea has been removed.
The proposed marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea provides guidance on sand extraction
activities in three areas: Utklippan within Ö508, Sandhammar embankment within Ö280 and
Ö281, and the Sandflyttan investigation area within Ö284. Previous extraction operations at
Sandhammar have ceased. According to the Geological Survey of Sweden, all three areas have
geological, economic and environmental conditions for sand extraction (Swedish Geological
Survey, 2017). Sand extraction is expected to lead to increased turbidity and reduced water
quality locally. However, the effect is considered to be short-term, so no lasting effects on water
quality are considered to occur (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019a).
Impact on hydrography
Studies have shown that offshore wind power can affect hydrographic conditions also during
continuous operation, both at the surface and at the foundations (Arneborg et al., 2024). The
effects on surface water occur when the wind behind the wind farms decreases, which in turn can
affect currents and stratification in the surface water. The foundations have a small impact in that
they slow sea currents and create turbulence that mixes different water layers. The effects of an
offshore wind farm can spread beyond its boundaries and also lead to second-round effects and
impacts on marine life (see also section 2.3.1). The marine spatial plan does not provide
guidance on any additional area for offshore wind energy in the Baltic Sea. However, expected
expansion in Skagerrak/Kattegat and Gulf of Bothnia may also be relevant in terms of impact on
hydrographic conditions, as the effects may spread beyond the wind farm's boundaries. The
Baltic Sea is a particularly vulnerable sea area in terms of the expansion of oxygen-free seabeds.
Possible consequences and large-scale effects of energy development in other marine spatial
planning areas also need to be investigated in terms of potential effects in the Baltic Sea.
Changes in emissions and air quality
Increased maritime transport in connection with sand extraction and transport between extraction
sites is expected to lead to increased air emissions and a marginal deterioration of air quality
locally. The proposal for a marine spatial plan for the Baltic Sea provides guidance on several
investigation areas for shipping through the central Baltic Sea. These include the transfer of
maritime traffic that today passes through Hoburgs bank and Norra Midsjöbanken to a deep water
fairway south and east of the bank. The shift entails an approximately five percent longer journey
distance and an approximately 2.6 percent higher fuel consumption at unchanged average
speed, which means a small negative effect on air quality throughout the marine spatial planning
area (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019b). In addition to investiongation
areas for shipping, the marine spatial plan guidance does not entail any further changes for
shipping.
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Climate
In the Baltic Sea, only guidance on nature and particular consideration for nature protection is
relevant from a climate perspective, as the marine spatial plan does not guide any increased
energy extraction in relation to the zero alternative.
Climate benefits linked to energy extraction through offshore wind power
The potential climate benefit in the Baltic Sea is presented in a similar table as for other marine
spatial planning areas, the existing offshore wind farm Lillgrund has an effect of 0.1 TWh, and
Krieger's Flak, which is licensed, is estimated to have an effect of 1.5 TWh.
Table 24. Shows results of calculation for potential climate benefit when offshore wind power replaces the Nordic residual mix
according to plan proposals, zero alternatives and the current situation in the Baltic Sea.
TWh Climate impact Nordic residual mix Potential CO2- Potential
Offshore wind energy (524 100 tonnes equivalent reduction in
(11 000 tonnes CO2- CO2-equivalent/ reduction relation to
equivalent/TWh) TWh) Sweden’s
emissions in
2023
Existing 0,1 1 100 52 410 51 310 0.1%
offshore wind
energy in the
Baltic Sea
Zero 1,5 16 500 786 150 769 650 1,6 %
alternatives
(permitted
projects)
Proposal for a 0 0 0 0 0%
marine spatial
plan
Guidance on nature protection and particular consideration Carbon sequestration and adaptation
to climate change
The marine spatial planning guides on both nature protection (N) and consideration of high values
for nature protection (n), marine areas protected against disturbances and impacts can generally
be assumed to have better conditions both to deal with climate change by conserving biodiversity,
and better conditions to store carbon when they are to some extent protected from disturbances.
There are no data or figures that describe the potential and ability for carbon sequestration in
different benthic habitats and sediments in a Swedish national context. Norwegian researchers
have mapped carbon sequestration in Norwegian marine areas, and concluded that benthic
habitats of different character have different abilities and conditions to contribute to carbon
sequestration, both in shorter and longer time perspectives. An important conclusion of the study
is that benthic habitats that are left undisturbed have greater potential to act as natural carbon
sinks (Diesing et al., 2024).
In the Baltic Sea, the total area for guidance on nature and particular consideration for high
nature value amounts to 74,850 square kilometres, which makes up approximately 43% of the
Baltic Sea's marine spatial plan area. It is evenly divided between guidance on nature (20.5%)
and particular consideration for high nature values (22.5 %).
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In the Baltic Sea, climate refugias for blue mussels, bladderwrack, herring and cod have been
part of the basis for the guidance, which is positive in terms of the chances of ecosystems and
particular species to survive in a changed climate (Hammar & Mattsson, 2017). The marine
spatial plan guidance on nature and particular consideration for high nature values is assessed to
promote and enhance important ecosystem services significant for adaptation to a changing
climate.
In southern Sweden, coastal erosion is expected to become more common as a result of climate
change and sea level rise (Malmberg et al. 2016). The marine spatial plan guides sand extraction
in three areas of the Baltic Sea, which means that sand from the seabed can be used for beach
nourishment and climate adaptation measures.
Landscape
In the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area there are two energy areas (Ö285, Ö287). As the
energy areas are built or licensed, they are included in the zero alternative and are therefore not
subject to an impact assessment. Figure 49 below shows the energy areas and landscape impact
in the Baltic Sea.
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Figure 49. Potential negative effect on landscapes of proposed energy areas in the Baltic Sea. In the energy areas, dark color
shows great effect and light color shows little effect. Accumulated visibility from land is shown over the sea and visibility of
energy areas is shown over land.
- 170 -
Other impacts on landscapes
As energy areas in the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area are built or have permits, no other
impact on landscapes is assessed.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
Although no impact assessment is carried out for energy areas in the Baltic Sea, those energy
areas in the zero alternative may have negative effects on landscapes in Denmark around
Öresund, as well as the northern part of Rügen in Germany.
The cumulative impact of energy areas is mainly linked to areas around Skanör-Falsterbo in
southwestern Skåne, where existing energy area Ö287 and permit-granted Ö285 can cause
cumulative impact on landscapes. This impact may increase with energy areas in neighbouring
countries.
Cultural environment
Indirect influence – National interest in cultural heritage conservation, Chapter 3, Section 6 of the
Environmental Code
In the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area there are two energy areas (Ö285, Ö287). As the
energy areas are built or permit-granted, they are included in the zero alternative and are
therefore not subject to an impact assessment. All energy areas in the Baltic Sea are listed with
particular consideration to high cultural heritage values (small-k). The guidance on particular
consideration for high cultural heritage values is considered to entail adaptations of the location
and design of wind farms regarding, for example, the location and height of wind turbines in order
to reduce the impact on the specific cultural heritage sites concerned. Figure 50 below shows the
energy areas in the Baltic Sea.
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Figure 50. Potential indirect negative effect of energy areas on national interest claims for cultural environment in the Baltic Sea.
- 172 -
Direct impact
In the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area, there are no energy areas that are impact assessed for
the cultural environment, hence no marine archaeological sites within the proposed energy areas
are assessed. However, there are a number of registered marine archaeological sites in energy
areas in the zero alternative. Figure 51 presents marine archaeological sites outside energy
areas and within energy areas included in the zero alternative.
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Figure 51. Risk of impact on marine archaeological sites.
- 174 -
Note that the compilation only refers to the sites that are registered in the Swedish National
Heritage Board's Cultural Environment Register (Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.y.). Since knowledge
of the existence of marine archaeological sites in Swedish waters is not complete, the
establishment of offshore wind power should be preceded by marine archaeological
investigations where there may be marine archaeological sites (County Administrative Boards,
2024).
Indirect and direct impact – Regional value areas
In the Baltic Sea's marine spatial plan area there are only two energy areas, Ö285 with a permit
for the establishment of offshore wind power, and Ö287 which is built. There is therefore no
impact assessment of energy areas on marine cultural heritage values in the Baltic Sea. Fel!
Hittar inte referenskälla. shows energy areas and marine cultural heritage values in the Baltic
Sea.
- 175 -
Figure 52. Indirect and direct negative impact on regional cultural heritage value areas.
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Other impacts on cultural environment
The coastline of the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area is entirely of national interest for
unbroken coastline (Chapter 4, Section 3 of the Environmental Code) or high-exploited coastline
(Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code). As energy area Ö287 is already built, and
there are permits in Ö285 it is included in the baseline option and is not subject to an impact
assessment.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
Denmark's marine spatial plan (Denmark's marine spatial plan, 2024) contains energy areas that
can affect cultural environments in Sweden. West of Bornholm there are two energy areas in the
marine spatial plan that can affect the value area Kåseberga-Sandhammaren (16.5 kilometers
away) and the national interest Sandhammaren (28 kilometers away). Furthermore, there are four
Danish energy areas in Öresund that may indirectly affect cultural environments such as the
value areas Falsterbo Peninsula and Landskrona-Pilhaken-Ven, as well as the national interest
claims Skanörs ljung, Skanör and Falsterbo, Foteviken-Glostorp, Malmö, Alnarp, Barsebäck-
Hofterup, Landskrona and Ven. The entire coast of Skåne is covered by the national interest of
high-exploited coast (Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code).
As only energy areas in the Baltic Sea are included in the zero alternative, the cumulative impact
is not assessed. However, the energy areas in the Baltic Sea together with energy areas in
neighbouring countries can give rise to indirectly negative cumulative effects on cultural
environments in Sweden, especially along the coast of Skåne.
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Effects on the management of water, soil and the physical
environment in general
Energy extraction
The planning area has very good conditions for offshore wind power in terms of wind and depth
conditions. However, the proposed marine spatial plan does not guide use for energy extraction
in addition to existing wind farms, Kårehamn (not visible for cartographic reasons), Lillgrund, and
the Krieger’s Flak area, where a licensed project is located, see Figure 53 below.
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Figure 53. Map of energy areas in plan proposals, zero alternatives, and initial planning basis The Swedish Energy Agency
2023.
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Area-specific assessments, nature and conditions for energy extraction
The proposed marine spatial plan does not provide guidance on additional areas for energy
extraction other than the existing wind farm, Ö287 Lillgrund, and the area Ö285 Krieger’s Flak,
where a licensed project is located. Guidance on additional areas for energy extraction in addition
to these two is not available in the plan with reference to government decisions and rejection of a
number of project applications in plan areas with reference to defence interests. For more
information see the marine spatial plan section 2.4.1.
The two energy areas that remain in the plan proposal since the review proposal are included in
the impact assessment zero alternative and, in addition, no further areas are assessed. Potential
for energy extraction and electricity production is estimated based on surfaces for energy
extraction, for plan proposals corresponding to this approximately 1.6 TWh. The conditions for
energy extraction based on the nature of wind and depth are considered to be very good, with
relatively good wind conditions and located in relatively shallow areas.
The zero alternative for assessment is the existing wind farm, as well as a licensed project
Krieger's Flak Ö265. Taken together, these two areas correspond to an area of approximately 80
km2, see Table 25 below.
Table 25.Guidance energy extraction, plan proposal Baltic Sea, total area, as well as area within territorial sea and foundations.
Areas of energy; About Of which km2 in Estimated Municipal Foundations
Area Km2 territorial sea ~22km TWh planning area
Krieger's
Ö285 -
Flak
70 0,0 1,4* Bottom-fixed
Ö287 Lillgrund 8 7,3 0,33 ** Malmö Bottom-fixed
Total,
approximately About 1.6
* Assumption according to marine spatial plan, 5MW/Km2, 4000 full load hours
** according to project authorisation
Marine spatial plan, zero alternatives and guidance on energy extraction
The original planning documents of public interest of substantial importance identified 24 areas
suitable for offshore wind power in the Baltic Sea, with a total area of approximately 9,640 km2.
During the initial planning process, areas have been adjusted and some have been excluded with
regard to other interests such as defence, recreation, cultural environment and shipping. Based
on the Government’s decision to reject all applications for offshore wind farms in the sea area, the
overall assessment is that there are currently no conditions for using energy extraction in addition
to existing permits in the Baltic Proper due to the interests of defence (Ministry of Climate and
Industry 2024; Government 2024d).
Total areas for energy extraction in the draft marine spatial plan, zero alternatives, public interest
of substantial importance, national interest claims, and adopted marine spatial plan, see Table 26
below.
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Table 26. Guidance on energy extraction, estimation of production potential, based on marine spatial plans, zero alternatives,
national interest claims and public interest of substantial importance.
Indicative basis for energy extraction Baltic Sea approximate area (km2)
Plan proposal 80
Zero alternative 80
General Interest of Significant Importance, Planning Basis Step1, EM 9 640
- Of which surface in planes; 70
National interest claims 2 020
- Of which surface area in level, approx. km2 60
Plan adopted 560
Realisation, projects and bidding zones
In the plan areas there is an existing wind farm, as well as a permit-granted one. Potential
additional electricity production in the plan area is assumed to be connected to bidding zone 4.
For more detailed information on electricity consumption and related bidding zones and users,
please refer to chapter 2.4.1, Energy regarding electricity consumption and industry, the transport
sector and households.
The plan's guidance on energy coincides with the plan areas for the existing wind farm, the City
of Malmö.
Indirect impact - energy
Based on the fact that the plan does not guide on additional areas for energy extraction other
than already existing and permit-granted, the indirect impact on land use and the impact of the
proposed marine spatial plan is considered to be minor within the marine spatial plan area.
However, exempted areas may possibly indirectly affect other plan areas in terms of establishing
offshore wind power.
Achievement of objectives, national and municipal interests - energy
Plan proposal for the Baltic Sea contributes a limited part to the achievement of objectives
regarding assignments for offshore wind power and national energy policy goals, climate goals
and goals for fossil-free electricity supply. The objective of the assignment for all marine spatial
plans corresponds to a total of 120TWh, which means that the relatively large marine spatial plan
areas that are exempt may make it difficult to realise the objective and generate electricity. The
Baltic Sea is the largest marine spatial plan area and represents approximately 60 percent of the
total area of the marine spatial plans.
In the proposed marine spatial plan, the total area for energy extraction is approximately 80
square kilometres, corresponding to approximately 1.6 TWh, including the existing Lillgrund wind
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farm. Compared with previously decided marine spatial plan and initial planning basis for
guidance on energy extraction, the space in the plan area has decreased significantly.
In the adopted marine spatial plan (Regeringen, 2022a) for the Baltic Sea, the corresponding total
area for guidance on energy extraction is approximately 570 km2. The total area for energy
extraction in the initial planning basis (Energy Agency 2023) is equivalent to approximately 9,600
km2, where the national interest has also been taken into account. The proposal for a marine
spatial plan for the Baltic Sea thus entails a marked reduction in the indicative use of energy in
the plan area. This could also potentially affect electricity generation in bidding zones 3 and 4 and
affected regions.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
The marine spatial plan does not provide guidance on areas for energy extraction other than
those that have been granted a permit and those that already exist, which means that cumulative
impacts, as well as impacts on neighbouring countries, are not considered within the marine
spatial plan area. However, the exclusion of energy areas in the plan area in question may
indirectly affect and entail an increased risk of cumulative effects in the other two plan areas and
neighbouring countries, based on increased concentration and the need for realisation of areas
for energy extraction in these two areas in order to achieve the target of 120TWh.
Recreation
The Baltic Sea includes high nature values, where coastal and archipelago landscapes offer good
conditions for recreation. A large part of the coast is designated as an area of national interest for
recreation under Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code. Stockholm's outer
archipelagos, which together with the Åland Archipelago and the west coast of Finland form a
unique stretch of shallow archipelagos, in the Gotska Sandön National Park with its unique
isolated location, the islands of Öland and Gotland and the coast of Skåne are some areas that
attract many visitors. Recreational boat traffic is also an important part of recreation in the Baltic
Sea, not least in the Stockholm archipelago and to and from Gotland. In the proposal for a marine
spatial plan area, the Baltic Sea has two energy areas: Ö285 and Ö287. As the energy areas are
built or permit-granted, they are included in the zero alternative and are therefore not subject to
an impact assessment. Thus, no negative impact on recreation from these energy areas is
assessed. Figure 53 below shows the energy areas in the Baltic Sea.
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Figure 54. Potential negative effect on recreation of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows
great effect and light color shows little effect.
- 183 -
Accessibility
As the two energy areas Ö285 and Ö287 in the Baltic Sea marine spatial planning area are built
or licensed and are included in the zero alternative, they are not subject to an impact
assessment. Regardless, recreation along the coast and inside the marine spatial planning area
is widespread with several different activities and experiences that may affect accessibility when
establishing offshore wind power.
Leisure boating in the Baltic Sea occurs mainly along the coastline with the greatest activity in the
Stockholm archipelago, around and to and from Gotland and Öland, as well as along the coasts
of Småland, Skåne and Blekinge. There are major tendencies towards recreational shipping
routes within the marine spatial planning area, but also within the marine spatial planning area,
such as to and from Gotland and in the Hanö Bay, as well as to our neighbouring countries. The
activity of recreational shipping can be viewed in a general way using information from automatic
identification systems (AIS data). Not all recreational craft use AIS, which means that the actual
prevalence of recreational craft is more extensive. See Figure 55 for recreational boating in the
Baltic Sea.
- 184 -
Figure 55. Prevalence of recreational boating activity within proposed energy areas in the Baltic Sea based on an average of
hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022 (EMODnet, 2022).
- 185 -
Other impacts on recreation
The coastline of the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area is entirely of national interest for
unbroken coastline (Chapter 4, Section 3 of the Environmental Code) or high-exploited coastline
(Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code). As energy areas Ö285 and Ö287 are licensed
and built, they are included in the zero alternative and are not subject to an impact assessment.
However, the coastal zone in Skåne is of great importance for recreation along the beaches, not
least around Skanör-Falsterbo.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
Denmark's marine spatial plan (2024) contains energy areas that can affect recreation in
Sweden. Energy areas west of Bornholm that may affect the national interest claim The coast
stretch Trelleborg-Abbekås-Sandhammaren-Mälarhusen-Simrishamn indirectly, which also
German energy areas south of Skåne can potentially do. The Skanör-Falsterbo peninsula with
the coastline Höllviken-Trelleborg can also be affected by German energy areas. Furthermore,
there are primarily two Danish energy areas in Öresund that may indirectly affect recreation
around Skanör-Falsterbo, which are located about 12.5 kilometers and 16 kilometers from the
national interest claim. The Danish energy area Nordre Flint outside Malmö may have some
indirect impact on recreation in the national interest claims Höje å from Genarp to Lomma,
Kävlingeån from Vombsjön to Bjärred and Ven. The national interest claims include values of
natural and cultural environment and have appealing landscape images, but the impact is
considered to be marginal given the degree of exploitation in Öresund.
Due to the fact that the two energy areas in the Baltic Sea marine spatial plan area are built or
licensed, its possible effects on recreation in neighbouring countries are not assessed. Crossings
for pleasure boats to and from neighbouring countries are generally considered to be large
throughout the marine spatial plan area, with the greatest concentration in South Kvarken and
Åland, to and from the Danish islands Zealand, Mön, Falster and Bornholm, and northern parts of
Germany, where energy areas in Sweden and its neighbouring countries can entail barrier
effects.
As the energy areas Ö285 and Ö287 are included in the zero alternative for the Baltic Sea marine
spatial plan area, the cumulative impact is also not assessed. However, the energy areas
included in the zero alternative, together with energy areas in neighbouring countries, may
constitute indirect effects that negatively affect recreation areas in Sweden. The coast of Skåne
can potentially be most affected, especially the national interest for recreation Skanör-Falsterbo
peninsula with the coastline Höllviken-Trelleborg and the coastline Trelleborg-Abbekås-
Sandhammaren-Mälarhusen-Simrishamn.
Tourism
In the Baltic Sea there is a developed tourism industry, important for several of the coastal
municipalities located in the area (Region Sörmland, 2024: County of Regio Kalmar, u.y.; Region
Gotland, 2024) In the marine spatial planning area there are two energy areas, one built on and
one with a permit. Since no new energy areas are involved, the assessment is that there is no
risk of negative impact on the tourism industry in the area from offshore wind power.
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Defence
No assessment is made at marine spatial planning level for the interests of defence. See chapter
2.4.4 for general effects.
Shipping
The Baltic marine spatial plan area is the plan area with the relatively highest maritime intensity.
In the planning area, there is extensive maritime traffic, both national and international, to and
from ports, with shipping routes to and from Sweden and the countries around the Baltic Sea and
passages for transport to different parts of the world. Maritime transport includes freight vessels,
tankers and also relatively high proportion of passenger vessels (EMODnet, 2022). The plan area
also includes fairway and shipping lanes that are part of international IMO (International Maritime
Organization) routing systems, including the Baltic Sea deep water route south of Gotland. The
routing system is a vessel traffic control measure aimed at reducing the risk of accidents.
However, the proposed marine spatial plan does not guide use for energy extraction other than
the existing wind farm, Lillgrund (Ö287), and the Kriegers flak area (Ö285), where a licensed
project is located, see Figure 56.
Based on the Government’s decision to reject all applications for offshore wind farms in the area,
the overall assessment is that there are currently no conditions for using energy extraction in
addition to existing permits in the Baltic Proper due to the interests of defence (Ministry of Climate
and Industry 2024; Government 2024d). The draft marine spatial plan does not therefore provide
guidance on additional areas for use for energy production other than the existing wind farm,
Lillgrund, and the Krieger’s Flak area, where a licensed project is located. For this reason, there
is no further assessment of the impact on shipping for the current planning document related to
energy extraction.
The marine spatial plan's guidance on the use of shipping is based on national interest claims for
shipping and thus largely coincides with established shipping lanes and shipping routes.
However, the marine spatial plan provides guidance on maritime investigation areas at Hoburg’s
Shoal, Midsjöbankarna and Salvorev. Investigation areas are included in the adopted plan and
mean that the plan proposes redirection of shipping, but more investigation is required to
establish in the plan. The investigation option is described in the adopted marine spatial plan with
environmental impact assessment and sustainability report, and includes diversion of shipping
away from sensitive natural areas to protect birds and critically endangered marine mammals.
However, changed extended mileage is assumed to lead to increased fuel consumption and
increased emissions of airborne pollutants and greenhouse gases (Swedish Agency for Marine
and Water Management, 2019a; 2019b). The long-term impact depends on the development of
ships, energy efficiency and fuels in shipping, as well as other external factors. Re-routing is also
likely to increase the intensity of shipping in the deep water route of the Baltic Sea, a route with
very high traffic intensity, and with possible other indirect sequential effects.
- 187 -
Figure 56. Relative potential negative effect of energy areas on shipping in the Baltic Sea. Dark color shows great effect and
light color shows little effect.
- 188 -
As the plan does not guide on additional energy areas in the plan area, the assessment is that
the potential impact on shipping of plan proposals is considered to be marginal, both for Swedish
and international shipping, provided that recommendations and permits for the establishment of a
licensed wind farm take into account existing recommendations (the Swedish Maritime
Administration and the Swedish Transport Agency, 2023) regarding, among other things,
requirements for safety distances. Safety distances and other adaptations of a wind farm are
decided during the permit assessment of the park.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
The same assessment also applies to shipping to and from neighbouring countries and
international traffic in the plan area.
Commercial fishing
Fishing in the Baltic Sea's marine spatial plan area accounts for a large proportion of Swedish
commercial fishing in terms of both value and quantity of catches. The main species (period
2018-2022) are sprat and herring, following the decline of the cod stock. The area uses both
passive and active gear, with the exception of Öresund, where fishing is conducted exclusively
with passive gear. (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).
Commercial fishing in the Baltic Sea is geographically widespread and the marine spatial plan
states the use of commercial fishing in large parts of the plan area. Most fishing in the Baltic
marine spatial plan area is pelagic fishing for herring and sprat, which is mainly carried out in the
Baltic Sea area, based on nationally allocated quotas. Some fishing with passive gear takes place
in front of the coast. Directed fishing for cod in the Baltic Sea has been temporarily closed for
several years, but has historically mainly been conducted in the southwestern parts of the sea
area, with trawlingin the outer sea and passive fishing closer to the coast. In the plan area, fishing
is also carried out from fleets from other EU countries that have quotas in the area.
In the proposal, area Ö248 (E(utr)fn) in the agreed marine spatial plan 2022 has been removed.
In and around the area, only limited Swedish fishing has been carried out. The removal of the
area is not expected to affect commercial fishing. Otherwise, the proposed marine spatial plan
does not guide the use of energy extraction except for areas with existing permits for the
establishment of wind power.
There are proposals for expansion of areas with particular consideration to high nature values in
the Baltic Sea with regard to migratory birds, harbour porpoises and reef habitats. Areas with
special nature considerations can in the long term, depending on the nature value the
consideration refers to, benefit commercial fishing from potentially strengthening ecosystem
services.
National, regional, municipal interests
The plan's guidance on the use of commercial fishing in the Baltic Sea confirms the national
interest in commercial fishing. Several municipalities have landing ports for fish (which also
represent national interests), including the ports of Simrishamn, Nogersund in Sölvesborg
municipality, Byxelkrok in Borgholm municipality, Ronehamn in Gotland and Västervik. See
Figure 57 below.
- 189 -
Figure 57. Map showing proposed areas for energy extraction, use of commercial fishing and national interest claims for
commercial fishing in the Baltic Sea.
- 190 -
Overall assessment of the Baltic Sea
Nature and ecological aspects
The Baltic Sea, with its very varied natural environments, is of great importance for both breeding,
resting and wintering birds. The most important migration routes in the Baltic Sea pass through
the southern parts of Öland and Gotland and further along the coast of Blekinge and south where
virtually the entire coast of Skåne is affected with the highest concentrations across Öresund.
These passages are also considered important for migratory bats. The Baltic Sea is also home to
the main distribution area of the critically endangered Baltic harbour porpoise at and around
Midsjöbankarna and Hoburg’s Shoal. Endangered cod have important spawning grounds in the
Baltic Sea south of Skåne and east of Bornholm. The Öresund, which is characterised by several
marine saltwater species, intensive shipping and a trawling ban, completes the marine spatial
plan area of the Baltic Sea towards Skagerrak/Kattegat. New areas for particular consideration of
high nature values have been added to the plan. South of Skåne, a larger area has been
designated small n with regard to the bird migration route Rügen-Skåne. Between Öland and
southern Midsjöbanken, areas have been added with particular consideration to high nature
values for the Baltic Sea harbour porpoise. Several areas around Gotland are included in
proposals for new Natura 2000 areas under the Birds Directive and have therefore been given the
designation "small n" pending a decision. An area with particular consideration to birds has also
been added west of Gotska Sandön. The marine spatial planning guidance on sand extraction
risks leading to temporary negative effects in the form of turbidity.
Recreation, cultural environment, landscape and tourism
In the northern parts of the Baltic Sea there is the Stockholm archipelago, of national importance
for tourism. Along the mainland coast there are several national interests and national interest
claims for recreation as well as national interests, national interest claims and value areas for the
cultural environment. On Gotska Sandön there are both values for the cultural environment and
recreation, where the national park offers privacy, tranquility and a view of the open horizon.
Around Gotland and Öland there are several cultural environments both on land and below the
surface. The Hanseatic city of Visby, the agricultural landscape of Southern Öland and the naval
city of Karlskrona are world heritage sites with high cultural heritage values. National interest in
the mobile recreation in the Baltic Sea is widespread, mainly around Öland, Gotland and along
the counties of Stockholm, Östergötland and Småland. The coast along Skåne and Blekinge also
has high values for recreation and cultural environment, including Ale Stenar, Hanöbukten and
Falsterbohalvön.
Energy extraction, shipping and commercial fishing
In the Baltic Sea, only energy areas where there are permits for the establishment of offshore
wind power remain. The background to the Government's decision to reject all applications for
offshore wind farms in the sea area is the overall assessment that there are currently no
conditions for using energy extraction in addition to existing permits in the Baltic Proper due to the
interests of defence (Ministry of Climate and Industry 2024; Government 2024d). The conditions
for energy extraction in the Baltic Sea are good in terms of wind conditions and depth, and there
is also a great need for increased energy production to secure the electricity supply in southern
and central Sweden.
- 191 -
The use of shipping in the marine spatial plan is based on national interest claims for shipping
that largely coincide with established shipping lanes and shipping routes. The plan proposal also
guides the investigation of shipping, re-routing of maritime transport in order to reduce the
pressure on the marine environment. Investigation proposals are assumed to contribute to
reduced environmental impact, but also involve an extended mileage, with potentially increased
emissions. Long-term effects are dependent on the development of fuels in shipping. Re-routing
would probably also mean an increased intensity of shipping in the deep water route of the Baltic
Sea, a route with very high traffic intensity already today and with possible other indirect
sequential effects.
The plan specifies the use of commercial fishing in large parts of the Baltic Sea, based on
national interest claims for commercial fishing.
Cross-border cumulative effects
The low presence of energy areas in the Baltic Sea means that contributions to cumulative effects
are very limited on the Swedish side. The cumulative effects are those from existing wind farms
and licensed Krieger’s Flak together with energy areas in neighbouring countries. The risk of
negative impact is estimated to be greatest in the area around the southern Midsjöbanken from
energy areas in Polish waters.
- 192 -
Figure 58. Shows proposed areas for energy expansion as well as already established wind farms in the Baltic Sea for
neighbouring countries.
- 193 -
Impact assessment of marine spatial plan for
Skagerrak/Kattegat
Impact on population and health
The marine spatial plan for Skagerrak/Kattegat does not provide guidance on either sand
extraction or changing shipping routes. The guidance for energy extraction is therefore what
differs from the already adopted marine spatial plan, and is particularly relevant to assess in
relation to population and human health.
There is currently no established offshore wind power in Skagerrak/Kattegat, but there are a total
of four permits for projects. Energy areas with licensed projects are included in the zero
alternative in the impact assessment against which the plan proposals are compared.
Visual impact and noise
In Kattegat there is a cluster of energy areas, three of which are included in the zero alternative.
The energy areas are located between 7 to 25 kilometers from the coast and will be visible from
land. Visual influences from both the turbines and obstacle lighting can disturb people living in
coastal areas (see Figure 59 below). However, it is individual and there is uncertainty about how
visual disturbance can directly or indirectly affect human health (see section 2.1. Population and
health). These energy areas are also in close proximity to areas of national interest for recreation,
and there is a risk that some individuals feel less motivated to visit nature areas that are
exploited. However, it is difficult to draw any direct conclusion regarding the effects of proposed
energy expansion on public health.
Offshore wind generates noise, both audible and infrasound (see section 2.1 Population and
health). Modelling for noise dispersion in various project applications shows that the overall noise
level generally decreases to 35 dBA within 5 kilometres of the outer boundary of wind farms.
Noise modelling is often based on a worst-case scenario for sound dispersion, where the
calculations assume that there is no natural attenuation of the sound. In Skagerrak/Kattegat,
proposed energy areas are located with sufficient distance from land to avoid health-damaging
effects from noise.
The energy areas in Skagerrak are located at a longer distance from the coast, which reduces the
visual impact, and the risk that people on the coast are disturbed by obstacle lighting and noise.
Maritime safety and risk
A number of proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat are considered to pose an increased
navigation safety risk due to proximity to shipping lanes and routes. Skagerrak/Kattegat is one of
Sweden's busiest sea areas, both in terms of freight traffic and recreational boat traffic (see
sections 5.4.2 and 5.4.5). Similar to the assessment of the marine spatial plan for the Gulf of
Bothnia, there is a higher risk of marine accidents that indirectly entail a higher risk of adverse
effects on human health.
- 194 -
Reducing Health Hazardous Emissions
There are also indirect health benefits from offshore wind power. The deployment of offshore
wind energy in proposed energy areas can lead to a reduction in emissions, and be a mitigation
measure to reduce the effects of climate change that threaten the welfare and security of that
society (see Section 2.3.2). Effects on air emissions and climate benefits are indirect and long-
term effects of marine spatial plans that in the long term are expected to contribute positively to
human health. In a shorter time perspective, local emissions may increase due to construction
works and increased traffic, or diversion of ship traffic. However, this is transitory and the net
effect of building wind power is positive in terms of the potential to replace fossil-based energy
carriers, thereby leading to reduced emissions of greenhouse gases and other airborne
pollutants.
- 195 -
Figure 59. Map showing distances between energy areas and urban areas in the marine spatial plan area of
Skagerrak/Kattegat. Source: Statistics Sweden, 2020.
- 196 -
Effects on protected animal or plant species and
biodiversity
Birds
There are two main migratory bird paths over the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat:
in Skagerrak/Kattegat runs a route in a southwest-northeast direction between Skagen in
Denmark to the archipelago area in Bohuslän between Tjörn in the south and Smögen in the
north. In Kattegat, another southwest-northeast migration route extends from the Grenå area over
Anholt in Danish waters to the Falkenberg-Varberg area. The proposed energy areas within these
two migratory routes – V359 in the north and V317 and V364 in the south – are considered to
entail a risk of large or medium impact on migrating birds. V359 risks affecting a migratory bird
corridor used by birds of prey during the spring migration, many of which are red-listed. The
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency considers that the risk of collisions and barrier effects
is high as the area is located in the middle of a relatively narrow migration corridor (Energy
Agency, 2023a). V359 may also pose a risk to bird species moving in a north-south direction
between Skagerrak and Kattegat.
The migratory corridor in the south is also important for birds of prey. It is estimated that three to
four thousand birds of prey follow this route during the spring route. Parts of V305 and V317 are
at risk of negatively affecting the bird path. The more coastal energy zones V317 and V364 carry
a certain risk of negative impacts on coastal species and coastal breeding species foraging in the
sea. For these species, the establishment of wind power in the above-mentioned energy areas
constitutes a possible barrier to the foraging areas further out to sea. V364 is bordered to the
south by the Natura 2000 area Northwest Skåne Sea Area, which is designated, among other
things, for the protection of wintering ducks and other seabirds.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
The energy area V357 is included in the baseline option and, together with area V359, would
pose a cumulative risk of impact on birds.
The area in Kattegat bounded by Fladen in the north and Stora Middelgrund in the south as well
as towards the coast is of international importance for several seabirds, including guillemot,
razorbill and three-toed gulls. These species show varying degrees of sensitivity to offshore wind
(Leemans & Collier, 2022). Although each proposed energy extraction area affects only a small
part of the entire area used by the birds, there is a high risk that the habitats of the different
species will be fragmented or parts of them will become inaccessible if all energy areas were to
develop.
In Kattegat, energy areas V303, V305 and V361 are included in the zero alternative. Of these,
special area V361 is considered to have a high risk of negative impact on birds. The cumulative
picture for Kattegat is that establishing all energy areas in the plan together with those in the zero
alternative would create a risk of major negative impact on birds.
On the Danish side, there are plans for the establishment of wind power in both Skagerrak and
Kattegat which are considered to further contribute to the risk of negative impact on migratory
birds. Norway currently has no plans to establish offshore wind power in eastern Skagerrak.
- 197 -
Figure 60. Potential negative effect on migratory birds of proposals for energy extraction areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color
shows great effect and light color shows little effect.
- 198 -
Figure 61. Potential negative effect on wintering areas for birds of proposals for energy extraction areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat.
Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.
- 199 -
Bats
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, the knowledge base on the presence and risk of impact on bats is
particularly weak. There is a great need for additional analyses of migration routes and foraging
areas.
There is a migration route in the spring from Skagen's cape in Denmark eastwards towards the
Swedish coast. Otherwise, it is the coastal energy areas in Halland that can have a negative
effect on foraging bats and a potential migration route via Anholt and over to the Halland coast.
An overall assessment gives a medium risk of impact on bats in Skagerrak/Kattegat.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
It is especially the energy area V303 within the zero alternative that is considered to be able to
contribute to cumulative effects on bats in the potential migration route from Denmark via Anholt.
Several energy areas in the Danish marine spatial plan are considered to have a risk of
contributing to cumulative negative impacts on bats, but the state of knowledge is too uncertain
for more precise assessments of the risk of impacts.
- 200 -
Figure 62. Potential negative effect on bats of proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and
light color shows little effect.
- 201 -
Marine mammals
There are harbour seals, harbour porpoises and, to a limited extent, grey seals in
Skagerrak/Kattegat.
Harbour seal
The harbour seal is close to the coast and rests on islets and skerries. The harbour seal, like
other seals in Swedish waters, does not achieve good environmental status according to the
latest assessment (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024a). The harbour
seal is not as sensitive to impulsive underwater noise as the harbour porpoise. Effects from the
construction phase are considered to be minimised to negligible levels if mitigation measures are
taken in the construction phase.
Harbour porpoise
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, the Skagerrak/Kattegat population of harbour porpoises has one large and
several small (but important) reproduction areas, mainly in Skagerrak (Wijkmark, 2015).
Particularly worthy of protection for this population is the area at the northern tip of Jutland, which
is part of a large reproduction area.
In Kattegat, Fladen and Lilla och Stora Middelgrund are the most important areas for the harbour
porpoise. These are mainly used by the Belt Sea population. Neither the population in the
Skagerrak nor the Belt Sea population is currently endangered, but is classified as of least
concern in the Swedish Species List (Artdatabanken, u.y.), but in the latest status assessment
under the Marine Environment Ordinance, the Belt Sea population is not considered to be in good
status in any part of the Swedish assessment area.
The energy areas V303 and V361 near Fladen and Lilla Middelgrund as well as V317, V305 and
V364 adjacent to Morup's embankment are estimated to have a potential medium negative effect
on harbour porpoises.
If account is taken of when in the season construction works are carried out to avoid damage and
mitigation measures are used, the effects on harbour porpoises are not considered to have a
negative impact on populations in Skagerrak/Kattegat. There is a lack of knowledge about the
long-term effects of continuous noise from wind farms on harbour porpoises. Further research
and follow-up of actual impact is therefore important and that the conditions for decided parks
include that the operator uses the best possible technology to minimize avoidance behaviour of
harbour porpoises and ensured that during normal operation there are no noise levels that lead to
harmful levels for harbour porpoises.
See Figure 63 for a map of impact assessment for harbour porpoises in Skagerrak/Kattegat.
Grey seal
A small number of grey seals are also found along the Swedish west coast. The consideration
that will be taken to minimise disturbance of harbour porpoises in the construction of energy
areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat will also indirectly exclude negative effects on grey seals.
- 202 -
Cumulative and transboundary effects
The energy area V357 included in the zero alternative is assessed to have a potential medium
negative impact on harbour porpoises in the construction phase as the area overlaps with a
harbour porpoise denser area extending into the Danish sea area.
In Danish waters there are several energy areas in Kattegat. Together with the proposed energy
areas in the plan proposal, they are considered to have a medium negative cumulative impact on
both Skagerrak/Kattegat and Belt Sea populations of harbour porpoises.
- 203 -
Figure 63. Potential negative effect of proposed energy areas on harbour porpoises in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows
great effect and light color shows little effect.
- 204 -
Benthic habitats
The generally greater biodiversity in Skagerrak/Kattegat compared to the Baltic Sea and the Gulf
of Bothnia entails a greater risk of negative bottom impact from offshore wind power in this
marine spatial planning area. An analysis of potential bottom impact made with Symphony gives
a large negative effect on benthic habitats for the coastal energy area V305 and medium impact
for V364, both in southern Kattegat. For both areas, the negative effect is primarily on the photic
soft bottom, that is, sunlight-exposed soft bottom. In general, wind power installations should
avoid disturbing or causing the loss of benthic habitats worthy of protection. One example of such
is the so-called bubble reefs that occur in Kattegat. Known occurrences of bubble reefs do not
exist within proposed energy areas in the marine spatial plan, but consideration should
nevertheless be given to design to avoid damage to potential biotopes worthy of protection.
Other energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat have a small negative effect on benthic habitats in the
analysis. See Figure 64 below.
- 205 -
Figure 64. Potential negative effect of proposed energy areas on the benthic habitat in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark blue color
shows medium effect and light green blue color shows little effect.
- 206 -
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, bottom trawling is conducted, which has negative effects on the benthic
habitats. Bottom trawling is different in intensity in different areas. In the assessment of good
environmental status made for Skagerrak/Kattegat, the limit value for physical disturbance and
physical loss is considered to have been exceeded. This means that activities with physical
impact must decrease in extent if there is to be room for new activities with physical impact. Since
bottom trawling is one of the main pressures on the benthic habitat in Skagerrak/Kattegat and a
dynamic one, it is relevant to see in which areas it contributes the most disturbance. In such
areas, a wind power installation with about 1-2% bottom impact could have been an improvement
from a bottom pressure perspective compared to bottom trawling that impacts a significantly
larger part of the seabed. This can be seen as a positive net local impact.
In Symphony, this has been analysed with assumptions that trawling is not possible in energy
areas with floating foundations and assumptions of a 50% reduction in trawling in energy areas
with solid foundations. No assumptions have been made about the displacement of the fishing
effort. Movement is likely because the fishing quota is likely to govern the effort, i.e. fishing is
likely to take place elsewhere to fill the fishing quota. This would mean a concentration of the
fishing pressure compared to the current situation. There are uncertainties in these assumptions
and how bottom trawling will adapt.
According to the Symphony analysis, a medium positive local net effect from a bottom pressure
perspective can be obtained for energy area V352, V359 and V361. A small positive local net
effect can be obtained for V317 and V364 in the southern Kattegat and in area V360 in the
Natura 2000 site Bratten. See Figure 63 below. These results naturally coincide with the areas
that are important for commercial fishing. A balance must therefore be struck between energy use
and commercial fishing. Two interests sharing a limited bottom pressure space.
- 207 -
Figure 65. Potential positive local net effect of energy areas on the benthic habitat in Skagerrak/Kattegat if energy use replaces
bottom trawling. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.
- 208 -
Cumulative and transboundary effects
The effects on benthic habitats are considered to be primarily local and temporary, in addition to
the establishment of a new hard bottom substrate at a plant in the soft bottom. In
Skagerrak/Kattegat, such substrates can act as artificial reefs and attract biodiversity, but they
also risk being stepping stones for invasive alien species. Therefore, the assessment does not
give any positive or negative effect to new hard bottom substrates. In energy area V303 there are
several known occurrences of bubble reefs that need to be taken into account in particular.
The risk of cumulative bottom effects in relation to wind farms planned in Danish waters is
considered to be mainly linked to potential reef effects and the risk of spreading alien species.
Fish and spawning grounds
The main parts of Skagerrak/Kattegat have the potential for fish spawning, but several species'
primary spawning grounds are outside Skagerrak/Kattegat. This applies, for example, to saithe,
whiting and mackerel spawning in the northern or central North Sea.
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, the conducted Symphony analysis results in that the energy areas V352
and V360 in the north may have a medium negative effect and the energy areas V317 and V364
in the south a small negative effect on spawning areas.
More detailed assessments need to be made prior to the possible establishment of wind power in
these areas. Conditions differ between different areas, which requires area-specific surveys and
adaptations (Öhman, 2023).
In Kattegat, the proposed energy area V317 overlaps with an area that is designated as a
national interest due to its importance for cod play and upbringing. The area is therefore
considered to have been able to have a major negative effect on spawning and nursery areas.
The establishment of offshore wind power in accordance with the plan proposal entails a risk of
impact, which requires consideration and adaptation, in particular during the construction phase.
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Figure 66. Potential negative effects on fish and fish spawning in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light
color shows little effect.
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A reduction in fishing activities may occur as a result of the establishment of offshore wind power
according to the plan proposal. The reduction could lead to reduced fishing pressure on the fish
resource and benefit the recovery of the resource. However, how fishing will be affected and
adapted to possible wind power establishment cannot be predicted at present. It is therefore also
not possible to assess how large such a positive effect could be. Similarly, the environmental
impact assessment of the adopted marine spatial plan highlights that the marine spatial plan’s
guidance on particular consideration for high nature values can contribute to the introduction of
provisions for more low-impact fishing, which is considered to have a small positive effect on the
fish resource (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019a). Regulations may
relate, for example, to adaptations for reduced by-catch or reduced impact on the seabed during
bottom trawling. However, whether and, if so, how such adaptations could be introduced is not
foreseeable at present, and thus also the potential positive effects on fish.
The overall assessment is that the plan proposal has a small negative effect on fish and fish
spawning.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
The extent of energy establishment in Skagerrak/Kattegat affects the risk of negative effects on
fish and fish spawning. The energy area V317 is considered to have the greatest negative effect
and should therefore preferably be avoided.
Energy areas in Danish waters has similar conditions to negatively affect fish and fish spawning.
Here too, spawning periods should be taken into account in order to minimise the risk of adverse
effects.
Impact of proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high nature
values
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, there are proposals for additional areas for particular consideration of high
nature values in an area for general use (V308). The area is proposed by the Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency as a new Natura 2000 area under the Birds Directive. It also
has valuable occurrences of bubble reefs.
A supplement to areas for particular consideration of high nature values can be found in the
proposed energy area (V357) as a bird area because it is located in a migratory bird path from
Skagen to the Swedish west coast.
There are also proposals to supplement areas for particular consideration of high nature values in
the northern Skagerrak within the marine protected area Bratten. The proposals are less
extensive than those received from the County Administrative Board of Västra Götaland. SwAM
has seen a value in prioritizing among areas. Examples of areas not included are those north and
south of Bratten.
The defence area V319 is proposed for particular consideration of high nature values.
The areas for particular consideration for high nature values in Skagerrak/Kattegat complement
the existing relatively extensive network of protected areas. The proposed new areas with the
designation "small n" are considered to be able to provide guidance on particular consideration
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for sustainable use when establishing wind power and other uses such as commercial fishing.
Together with agreed areas for particular consideration of high nature values, the proposals are
considered to contribute to a preventive consideration that can contribute to green infrastructure
and ecosystem services and to the achievement of conservation objectives for biodiversity.
Figure 67 shows the areas with nature use and particular consideration for high nature values
within the marine spatial planning area Skagerrak/Kattegat.
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Figure 67. Areas using nature (N) and decided on the respective proposals for new areas with particular consideration to high
nature values (n) in Skagerrak/Kattegat (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management 2024c).
.
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Effects on land, soil, water, air, climate, landscape,
settlement and cultural environment
Water and air
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, it is the marine spatial plan’s guidance on energy extraction that is
assessed to affect air and water. For effects on air, the assessment refers to changes in
emissions of airborne pollutants as a result of the marine spatial plan guidance. Effects on water
as a habitat refer to changes in the physical and chemical conditions of water as a result of the
marine spatial plan guidance on the different uses.
Turbidity and dispersal of sediments
Offshore wind power construction and associated cabling are activities that are expected to
lead to increased local turbidity and negative local impact on water quality. The turbidity itself
can lead to sequential effects on marine life and particular attention needs to be paid to
benthic habitats and organisms that are sensitive to impacts (see also section 2.3.1).
Turbidity can also occur during maintenance and decommissioning. The effects are generally
considered to be transient and local, and thus insignificant in terms of the marine spatial
planning area as a whole and the estimated lifespan of the wind farms.
Dispersal of pollutants
During the construction phase, it is important that sediments and benthic habitats are
carefully examined to avoid the spread of contaminants. In Skagerrak/Kattegat plan area,
there are a number of environmentally hazardous wrecks (the Swedish Agency for Marine
and Water Management, Miljöfarliga Wrecks web map, u.y.) that, when affected, can spread
pollution. There is also some increased risk of dumped ammunitions and mines in some
areas (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025).
In Skagerrak/Kattegat there are three national environmental monitoring stations where the
Swedish Geological Survey collects data to monitor the state and trends of environmental
toxic pressures in marine sediments. The installation of offshore wind power in several
energy areas may affect sampling and stations in the vicinity of energy areas may need to be
moved, see Figure 68 below. Other marine environmental monitoring may also be affected
by expansion in energy areas.
Hydrographic effects
Studies have shown that offshore wind power can affect hydrographic conditions during
continuous operation, both at the surface and at the foundations (Arneborg et al., 2024). The
effects in the surface water occur when the wind behind the wind farms decreases, which in
turn can affect currents and stratification in the surface water. The foundations affect by
slowing sea currents and creating turbulence that mixes different water layers. The effects of
offshore wind energy can spread beyond the boundaries of the park and also lead to
sequential effects and consequences for marine life (see section 2.2.1). Skagerrak/Kattegat
with the Skagerrak in the north has a good water turnover through the direct connection with
Skagerrak/Kattegat. Kattegat is a transitional zone to the Baltic Sea where water masses and
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streams with different salinity mix (Havet.nu, 2023a). The plan proposal indicate an extensive
energy area expansion especially in combination with the zero alternative. It is therefore
important to investigate the effects of changes in hydrographic conditions. Hydrographic
changes in Kattegat may also have effects in the Baltic Sea. Consideration also needs to be
given to the effects of energy expansion in neighbouring countries in terms of cumulative
impacts on hydrography and potential sequential effects.
Changes in emissions and air quality
The establishment of offshore wind power can lead to increased maritime transport for the
construction and servicing of the wind farms. This in turn can lead to higher air emissions to a
limited extent. Shipping and commercial fishing may also need to adapt routes to avoid offshore
wind power, which could potentially lead to shifts in mileage and changes in air emissions.
However, these effects can be seen as marginal in relation to the total emissions of these
sectors.
The expansion of offshore wind energy can also make a positive contribution to air quality by
replacing other energy production that generates greenhouse gas emissions. This depends on
the energy source being replaced, and the effects are regional and long-term. The overall
assessment is that guidance on energy extraction has a positive effect on air quality.
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Figure 68. Displays sampling stations for marine environmental monitoring as well as proposed energy areas including the zero
alternative.
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Climate
The marine spatial plan's guidance on nature conservation, particular consideration for high
nature values and energy extraction are the aspects that are most relevant in terms of climate
impact in Skagerrak/Kattegat. The marine spatial plan provides guidance on five additional
energy areas, in addition to the zero alternative, which in Skagerrak/Kattegat consists of the four
energy areas where various projects have been granted permits for offshore wind power. The
establishment of offshore wind power in energy use areas has the potential to provide society
with renewable and fossil-free energy. The expected negative climate-related impacts of energy
establishment are time-limited and small compared to the marine spatial plan’s contribution to
renewable energy in the longer term. The marine spatial plan's guidance on energy areas in
Skagerrak/Kattegat means that there is great potential to contribute to Sweden's climate goals.
There are both direct and indirect effects in terms of potential climate benefits. Guidance on
protected natural areas can indirectly lead to climate benefits as these areas are protected from
interventions that negatively affect the marine environment, which in turn affects both ecosystem
resilience and the ability to store organic carbon.
Climate benefits linked to energy extraction through offshore wind power
Fossil-free energy production is central to the climate transition by enabling the electrification of
society (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2023a, Government, 2021b). Southern
Sweden generally has a large energy demand, and the metropolitan region in Västra Götaland
County has the second highest electricity consumption in a comparison between counties (see
section 2.4.1). Offshore wind power is a renewable energy that has low climate emissions from a
life cycle perspective (Energy Authority 2021), and the direct climate benefit consists of the fact
that offshore wind power can replace energy production that has a higher climate impact. Climate
benefit could also be achieved by using energy as an energy carrier to electrify the industry and
transport sector, which currently accounts for a fair share of Sweden's greenhouse gas emissions
(Energy Authority, 2024). Indirectly, climate benefits can also arise from the fact that the
electricity produced is exported to other countries, thereby replacing other energy production with
higher emissions (see section 2.3.2).
There are several uncertainties and limitations to make a quantitative estimate and calculation of
the climate benefit. Among other things, the final climate benefit depends on how many energy
areas, and how much of individual areas are realized. It also depends on the method used to
estimate potential energy production. The marine spatial planning uses a more conservative
calculation for potential energy production, some designs indicate a higher power density, a
reasonable range would be to assess that the areas in the proposed marine spatial plan allow
between 21-30 TWh in Skagerrak/Kattegat (see also section 3.4.1). Furthermore, there are other
factors that can determine the actual climate benefit. This may include factors such as how much
capacity there is in the electricity grid and infrastructure, how other energy production and
associated climate emissions are changing and what the electricity demand will look like in the
future.
Chapter 2 (section 2.3.2) presents a reasoning to estimate potential climate benefits, this
reasoning was also the basis for calculations made in the previous sustainability report (Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019b) and is based on comparing the climate
impact between offshore wind power and residual mix. The climate impact from offshore wind
power is approximately 11 000 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per TWh (Energy Authority,
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2021) corresponding to 524 100 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent for the residual mix in 2024
(Energy Market Inspectorate, 2024). Calculations according to the same method for the proposal
for a marine spatial plan for Skagerrak/Kattegat show that the plan's guidance on energy
extraction has great potential to contribute to climate benefits. Table 27 below also shows a
comparison between potential CO2 emission reductions per TWh and Sweden’s total emissions
in 2023 (SCB, 2024). As mentioned above, it is not possible to interpret the result as realistic, as
several variables in the calculations are not definitive, but it gives an indication that there is a
great potential for the supply of renewable and fossil-free energy production according to the
marine spatial plan's guidance. In general, it is reasonable to assume that the climate benefit is
initially greater, and decreases over time when the inferior energy sources are replaced.
Table 27. Shows results of calculation for potential climate benefit when offshore wind power replaces fossil in the Nordic
residual mix according to plan proposals, zero alternatives and current situation in Skagerrak/Kattegat.
TWh Climate impact Nordic residual mix Potential Potential
Offshore wind (524 100 tonnes CO2- reduction in
energy (11 000 CO2-equivalent/ equivalent relation to
tonnes CO2- TWh) reduction Sweden’s
equivalent/TWh) emissions in
2023
Existing offshore wind 0 0 0 0 0%
power in
Skagerrak/Kattegat
Zero alternatives 7 77 000 3 668 700 3 591 700 7%
(permitted projects)
Proposal for a marine 21 157 300 7 494 630 7 337 330 15%
spatial plan
Changes in greenhouse gas emissions
Proposals for marine spatial plans with energy areas may have an impact on other uses with a
potential impact on greenhouse gas emissions. This applies, for example, to possible changes in
the mileage of shipping and commercial fishing. Skagerrak/Kattegat is one of Sweden's most
well-trafficed seas, both in terms of freight traffic and pleasure boat traffic. Fixed installations at
sea may be an obstacle to vessels, requiring certain routes to be changed. The assessment is
that estimated second-round effects on the climate as a result of increased mileage and
emissions are insignificant.
Installation and servicing of offshore wind power can also involve emissions that affect the
climate, but in relation to the input of renewable energy, these emissions are considered to be
insignificant.
Guidance on nature conservation and particular consideration - carbon sequestration
The marine spatial plan provides guidance on both nature conservation (N) and particular
consideration for high nature values (n). Marine areas that are protected against disturbances
and impacts can generally be assumed to have better conditions both to deal with climate change
by conserving biodiversity, and better conditions to store carbon as they are to some extent
protected from physical disturbances. There are no data or figures that describe the potential and
ability for carbon sequestration in different benthic habitats and sediments. Norwegian
researchers have mapped carbon sequestration in Norwegian marine areas, and concluded that
benthic habitats of different character have different abilities and conditions to contribute to
carbon sequestration, both in shorter and longer time perspectives, an important conclusion of
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the study is that benthic habitats that are left undisturbed have greater potential to act as natural
carbon sinks (Diesing et al., 2024).
In Skagerrak/Kattegat there are unique benthic habitats, with great variation in biodiversity and
also deep sea channels in the north. The marine spatial plan guides the use of nature, and
particular consideration for high nature values on a total area of approximately 5 386 square
kilometres, which corresponds to just over 56 percent of the marine spatial plan area of
Skagerrak/Kattegat. The largest proportion, 33 percent, consists of large N, and 23 percent is
particular consideration for high nature values (small-n). The proposal for the high nature value
area has been extended by two areas compared to adopted marine spatial plans (see section
5.2.6). Marine spatial planning as such is only a small part of, and has no decisive role in, the
ocean management processes that decide on guidelines for human activities in protected areas.
However, the guidance on particular consideration is considered to be able to contribute
positively to the conservation of marine environments to a greater extent than if the guidance had
not been provided. As mentioned in previos assessments, there is neither data nor an established
method to calculate or quantify the extent and rate of carbon storage in Skagerrak/Kattegat, to
investigate this further can lead to a better understanding of the climate benefits of conserving
and protecting marine ecosystems.
Adaptation to climate change
In the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat, data for climate refugias have not been
available as a basis for selection in areas with particular consideration to high nature values,
which means that this perspective is lacking. More measures of the ability of ecosystems and
marine species to adapt to climate change may also need to be taken into account in marine
spatial planning, such as connectivity and genetic variation (Havenhand & Dahlgren, 2017).
Landscape
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, the greatest impact is on the landscape in southern Halland, but there are
also effects in the northern Skagerrak/Kattegat, where several areas provide a cumulative effect.
Energy area V364 west of Halmstad is expected to have a potential large negative effect on
landscapes. The nearby energy area V317 is estimated to have a medium negative effect on the
landscape. These areas are almost entirely within the territorial boundary and are therefore
relatively close to the coast. For V352 and V359 the risk of negative effect is considered to be
small and for V360 marginal as the area is far from land. Figure 69 below shows the estimated
negative effect of the respective energy area in Skagerrak/Kattegat.
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Figure 69. Potential negative effect on the landscape of proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat. In the energy areas, dark
color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. Accumulated visibility from land is shown over the sea and visibility of
energy areas is shown over land.
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Area-specific assessments
Skagerrak
In the northern part of Skagerrak/Kattegat, it is especially the energy areas V352 and V359 that
are considered to cause some effect on the landscape. V352 tends to have the greatest negative
effect on the northern Bohus coast, where the Kosteröarna islandsand its national park stand out
along with the area west of Havstenssund, Grebbestad, Fjällbacka, and Väderöarna. The energy
area is about 25 kilometer from the Kosteröarna islands and about 32 kilometer from Grebbestad.
Following the landscape analysis, V359 tends to have the greatest negative effect on landscapes
around the areas around western Tjörn, Marstrand, Pater-Noster, and Gothenburg's northern
archipelago, including the islands Rörö, Hälsö, Öckerö and Björkö. The distance from V359 to
Gothenburg's northern archipelago is about 18 kilometer and to Marstrand about 20 kilometer.
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, the plan's energy areas are relatively far from land, but its size contributes
to a relatively greater negative effect on the landscape. The report ‘Storskalig vindkraft I
Västerhavet – Landskapsbild 2023-11-30’ (Ramböll, 2023) analyses the impact on the landscape
in more detail, in particular the potential for reducing effects by dividing areas into smaller parts
with open views between them.
Kattegat
In Kattegat, V317 is estimated to have the greatest landscape impact on the coastal areas around
Morups tånge and Falkenberg down towards Steninge. The energy area is located about 10
kilometer from Falkenberg. Worth mentioning is that V317 is located in the shadow of sight from
V305 (zero alternative) to the Halland coast, but when established together with V305 can be
perceived as a larger contiguous area if the landscape is viewed southwards from the north of the
energy areas, for example from Träslövsläge or Morups tånge.
For V364, the energy area is considered to have the greatest impact on the landscape in the
areas around a larger part of the coast of Halland, as well as the Bjäre peninsula. This impact
extends mainly from Falkenberg, along Halmstad and down towards Laholmsbukten. The
northern and western parts of Bjärehalvön together with Hallands Väderö are affected. V364 is
located about 16 kilometer from Tyludden and 13 kilometer from Hallands Väderö. V317 (and
V305) have a distance of 6 kilometer to V364, which may contribute to them not being perceived
as a coherent energy area.
Other impacts on landscapes
Energy area V352 is located about 27 kilometers from Fjällbacka archipelago landscape
protection area that may be negatively affected by the establishment of offshore wind power. The
entire coastline of Skagerrak/Kattegat is also covered by areas for unbroken coast or high-
exploited coast (Chapter 4 of the Environmental Code). V352 is located about 12.5 kilometers
from the coastal area and archipelago in Bohuslän. Values in this so-called national landscape
include, among other things, the originality of the entire area, connected beautiful and original
landscape sections and lookout points, and other values linked to the landscape image. The area
includes values with areas of some originality and other environments linked to the landscape
(Länsstyrelsen, 2000) that may be affected by the energy area. In the northern part of
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Skagerrak/Kattegat there is also Kosterhavet National Park about 11.5 kilometers from energy
area V352. In addition to high marine nature values, the national park also has a rich cultural and
natural landscape. In Kattegat, the coast of Halland is covered by high-exploited coast of national
interest. V317 is located less than a kilometre from the area and V364 about 5 kilometres from
the area and Skåne's northern part of the national interest high-exploited coast. The landscape
protection area Vesslunda about 16 kilometer from both energy areas and Strandområdet Påarp-
Fylleån estuary about 27 kilometers from V364 is considered to be visually affected by the
establishment of wind power.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, areas in Norway and Denmark can be affected by energy areas in the
marine spatial planning area. For example, V352 in Skagerrak may have negative landscape
effects on areas within the Norwegian national park Ytre Hvaler, as well as the coastal areas
south of Sandefjord and Larvik. Further south, the V359 can have a negative landscape effect on
Danish Skagen about 30 kilometer away, as well as marginal effects on the northern parts of
Læsø over 40 kilometer away. In Kattegat, it is primarily the Danish island of Anholt that can be
affected by energy areas in the plan area. Anholt is located approximately 34 kilometers and 36
kilometers from V317 and V364 respectively.
Neighbouring energy areas will have a synergetic cumulative effect on the landscape on the
coast of Skagerrak/Kattegat, despite some gaps between energy areas. From many viewpoints
along the coast, several wind farms can be visible in good weather conditions. Based on the
number of energy areas, their size, relatively coastal location and its location along the coast with
relatively even distances, the cumulative impact in Kattegat is estimated to be large. In
Skagerrak, V359 together with the authorised V357 can entail cumulative effects alternating its
specific assessed effects. The cumulative effects from the northernmost energy areas are
estimated to be smaller as the V360 is located almost 50 kilometers from the mainland.
Cultural environment
Indirect influence – National interest in cultural heritage conservation, Chapter 3, Section 6 of the
Environmental Code
In the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat, there are three energy areas that are
considered to entail a risk of large negative impact on national interest claims for cultural heritage
conservation: V359 outside Öckerö, V317 outside Falkenberg and V364 outside Halmstad. These
areas lie wholly or partly within the territorial sea boundary and are therefore relatively close to
the coast. Another area is considered to have a risk of medium negative effect on cultural
heritage conservation: V352 outside Koster. Finally, energy area V360 is considered to be able to
give rise to a risk of marginal negative effect on cultural heritage management. The energy areas
V303, V305, V357 and V361 are not subject to an impact assessment as there are permitted
projects in the area and are therefore included in our zero alternative. In addition to V360, other
energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat are listed with particular consideration to high cultural
heritage values (little-k). The guidance on particular consideration for high cultural heritage values
is considered to entail adaptations of the location and design of wind farms regarding, for
example, the location and height of wind turbines in order to reduce the impact on the specific
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cultural heritage sites concerned. Figure 70 below shows the estimated negative impact of the
respective energy area by colour code.
Figure 70. Potential indirect negative effect of energy areas on national interest claims for cultural environment in
Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.
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Skagerrak
V352 is considered to be likely to have a negative effect primarily on the national interest claim
Koster. The cultural environment includes archipelago, agricultural and fishing villages with older
cultural landscapes. Expressions of national interest are described to lie primarily in the
environment linked to the structure of the landscape, agriculture, coastal settlements related to
fishing, and beach resort life. In addition to the national interest being within the bounds of spatial
dominance/competition to V352, the energy area may affect the communication and recreation
environment where unobstructed views are an essential expression. It may also affect fishing
villages, urban environments, coastal and archipelago environments, coastal and shippers'
communities where adjacent coastal and marine landscapes are an essential physical
expression.
V359 is expected to give rise to a risk of negative impact mainly on several national interest
claims, mainly Pater Noster, Marstrand, Burösund (Hällsö – Burö et al. islands), Styrsö parish,
Åstol and Tumlehed. The national interest claims are covered by communication environment,
small town environment, seaside resort, coastal and archipelago environment, ancient site
environment, institutional environment, cognitive environment, fishing village and coastal
communities. Expressions of national interest are described mainly in lighthouses and pilot sites,
defence installations and the silhouette of Carlsten Fortress, churches, town halls and homes
from the 17th century onwards, seaside resorts, port environments, plots, ancient sites in the form
of communities from the Stone and Bronze Age, agricultural settlements, fishing activities,
quarantine facility and rock paintings. In addition to the national interest claims being within the
bounds of spatial dominance/competition to V359, the energy area may affect the archaeological
environment, communication environment, recreation environment and defence environment
where free views are an essential expression. It may also affect fishing villages, urban
environments and coastal and shipping communities where adjacent coastal and marine
landscapes are an essential physical expression.
Kattegat
V317 is considered to be likely to have a negative impact primarily on the national interest claims
Vastaddalen and Träslövsläge. The national interest claims are covered by, among other things,
agricultural landscapes with plains, ancient relics, church environment, mill environment, coastal
environment and fishing village. Expressions of national interest are described to lie primarily in
prehistoric sites, agricultural buildings from the 19th century, coastal cottages, fishing village with
protected natural harbor, and unique mill facility at Berte. In addition to the national interest claims
being within the bounds of spatial dominance/competition to V317, the energy area may affect the
archaeological, communication, recreation and defense environment where unobstructed views
are an essential expression. It may also affect fishing villages, the urban environment and the
coastal and shipping community, where adjacent coastal and marine landscapes are an essential
physical expression.
V364 is considered to be likely to have a negative impact primarily on the national interest claims
Vastaddalen, Gröthögarna, Segelstorp, Dagshög, Tyludden – Tylöns lighthouse site and Båstad –
Norrviken gardens. The national interest claims include small-scale cultural environments and
agricultural landscapes with plains, ancient relics, church environment, mill environment, coastal
landscape, village environment, ancient and medieval coastal environment, seaside resort,
recreational environment, and garden. The claims of national interest express prehistoric sites,
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farm buildings from the 19th century, coastal cottages, medieval buildings, unique mill plant at
Berte, burial cairns, line of sights along the beach and out to sea, 19th century farms, farmland,
port, shipping and shipbuilding, the Bronze Age mound Dagshög, fishing villages, seaside
resorts, and Båstad with its location and port. These cultural environments are sensitive to large-
scale wind farms that can break historically functional links and complicate the understanding of
the history that the cultural environments represent. In addition to these national interest claims
being within the bounds of spatial dominance/competition to V364, the energy area may affect
communication, archaeological, recreational and defence environments where unobstructed
views are an essential expression. It may also affect fishing villages, urban environments, coastal
and shipping communities where adjacent coastal and marine landscapes are an essential
physical expression.
Direct impact
In the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat there are a number of registered marine
archaeological sites in both the proposed energy areas and the energy areas included in the zero
alternative. Figure 71 shows marine archaeological sites within and outside energy areas.
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Figure 71. Risk of impact on marine archaeological sites.
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V359 has the most registered marine archaeological sites in the area with 15. V364 has six
registered sites. V317, V352 and V360 have no recorded marine archaeological sites in its area.
Table 28 provides an overview of the number of marine archaeological sites for individual
proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Note that the compilation only refers to the sites
that are registered in the Swedish National Heritage Board's Cultural Environment Register
(Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.y.). Since knowledge of the existence of marine archaeological sites
in Swedish waters is not complete, the establishment of offshore wind power should be preceded
by marine archaeological investigations where there may be marine archaeological sites (County
Administrative Boards, 2024).
Table 28. Number of recorded marine archaeological sites per energy area in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Source: The Swedish
National Heritage Board's Cultural Environment Register (Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.y.).
Energy area Number of marine archaeological sites
V317 0
V352 0
V359 15
V360 0
V364 6
Indirect and direct impact – Regional value areas
In the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat there are five energy areas that are subject
to an impact assessment, the remaining areas have been granted a permit. Two areas are
considered to have a risk of large negative impact on marine cultural heritage: V359 and V364.
These areas are partly within the territorial sea boundary and are therefore relatively close to the
coast. An energy area is considered to have a medium negative effect: V352. For V317 the risk of
negative effects on the cultural environment is considered to be small and for V360 marginal.
V303, V305, V357 and V361 are permitted and therefore not subject to impact assessment. In
Figure 72 below, using a colour code, the estimated negative impact of each energy area on
marine cultural heritage values is shown.
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Figure 72. Indirect and direct negative impact on regional cultural heritage value areas.
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Skagerrak
In the far north, energy area V352 is expected to have a negative effect on the marine cultural
heritage values Koster and Väderöarna. The impact in this case is primarily visual, as visibility
towards the free horizon from a number of viewpoints in the value areas is important for the
understanding of their cultural environments. In Kosterhavet there are particularly important line
of sights between Ursholmen and Väderöarna, Lindön, and Koster archipelago. In the
Väderöarna islands value area, the view of the lighthouse environment at Väderöbod, between
Storön and the Northern Väderöarna islands archipelago, as well as between Väderöarna and
Fjällbacka archipelago is particularly sensitive to visual influences. Both Kosterhavet and
Väderöarna include the marine spatial plan area rare cultural environment type communication
environment, and are part of national interest unbroken coast.
V359 directly overlaps with the North Kattegat , a value area below the surface with a large
number of shipwrecks. Norra Kattegatt refers to values below the water surface, which is why the
risk of negative impact primarily refers to physical impact in the construction and
decommissioning of foundations, cables or other infrastructure. The value area includes a large
number of sites from mine blasted and sunk ships from the two world wars and is considered an
important educational testimony of the 20th century world wars. The North Kattegat also includes
the sinking of the Swedish submarine Ulven. V359 has a direct overlap with about 28 percent of
the value area. For energy area V359 there is a risk of direct impact on cultural heritage values
through the cable laying or other infrastructure outside the energy area, both on the seabed and
on land. However, this risk is difficult to estimate without information on the exact location of such
infrastructure. Furthermore, V359 risks having an indirect impact on cultural environments in the
value areas Marstrand-Pater Noster and Känsö. Visual connections between cultural heritage
buildings and a view towards the horizon are essential for the understanding of these cultural
environments, which should be taken into account when developing wind power in the area
(County Administrative Boards, 2024).
Kattegat
V317 is expected to have a negative effect on the value areas Morups tånge and Träslövsläge-
Gamla Köpstad-Galtabäck. For Morups tånge, the line of sight towards the horizon from the
lighthouse site in the direction of Anholt is particularly important and the area around Korshamn,
both on land and on the seabed, is considered sensitive to cabling regarding ancient relics. Within
Träslövsläge-Gamla Köpstad-Galtabäck, the free lines of sight towards the horizon from the ports
in Träslövsläge and Gamla Köpstad are particularly significant. The area around the bay of Lerjan
is rich in marine archaeological sites, which are sensitive to interventions both on land and on the
seabed (County Administrative Boards, 2024).
V364 is considered to entail a risk of indirect impact on the value areas Tyludden-Tylön,
Bjärehalvön and Kullahalvön. All areas are sensitive to visual effects from the establishment of
tall and area large facilities, but assessment of consideration distances needs to be based on
site-specific conditions. Tyludden-Tylön, Bjärehalvön and Kullahalvön include all areas with high
potential for marine archaeological sites that should be investigated before any cable laying. Like
V317, V364 is considered to be likely to have a negative effect on Morups tånge (County
Administrative Boards, 2024).
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Other impacts on cultural environment
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, V352 is considered to have a negative effect on the national interest for
unbroken coast (Chapter 4, Section 3 of the Environmental Code) of Northern Bohuslän. Within
the national interest, no tall objects may occur, which means that higher objects within V352
about 12.5 kilometers away means that the visual effects are considered to be large. The area
has, among other things, high-quality archaeological sites, older buildings and scientific cultural
values that may be affected visually. The pristine nature and view of the untouched horizon are
important experiences for the northern Bohuslän coast that risk being lost. The landscape
protection area Fjällbacka archipelago is located about 27.5 kilometres from V352, which is
considered to have indirect negative effects on the protection area. Kosterhavet National Park is
located about 11.5 kilometers from energy area V352 and includes high cultural heritage values
that may be affected by energy area V352. V359 is located about 7.5 kilometers from the national
interest for high-exploited coast Södra Bohuslän (Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental
Code). However, the national interest is considered to have greater resilience for offshore wind
power in V359 compared to V352. According to Västra Götaland County Administrative Board,
the impact is not greater than allowed. However, cultural environments such as high-quality
archaeological sites, older settlements and scientific cultural values (Länsstyrelsen, 2000) may be
indirectly affected. In Kattegat there is a national interest for high-exploited coast along the entire
coast of Halland and Skåne. Both V317 and V364 are expected to have indirect visual effects on
national interests, but no large effects.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
In Kattegat, there is a risk that cultural environments are indirectly affected by Danish energy
areas. The Kullahalvön peninsula value area is located 19.5 kilometres from an energy area in
the Danish marine spatial plan. In Skagerrak there is a larger energy area east of Skagen located
25 kilometers from the value area Känsö and the national interest Styrsö parish.
The Swedish energy areas V303, V357 and V359 are close to the Danish zone and can affect
cultural environments in Denmark, not least at Anholt and in Skagen.
In Skagerrak/Kattegat there are several cultural environments that may be affected cumulatively
by the establishment of wind power in energy areas. However, the cumulative effects tend to
concentrate in Kattegat, given the energy areas already included in the zero alternative. V352 is
expected to give indirect negative cumulative effects for up to 13 national interest claims for
cultural heritage conservation and four marine value areas to a varied extent at a distance of up
to 70 kilometers. V359 is the energy area that is expected to affect the most national interest
claims for cultural heritage conservation, up to 31. V359 is also expected to affect seven marine
value areas indirectly, as well as the North Kattegat directly given its direct overlap with the value
area. In Kattegat, V317 can entail indirect cumulative effects for up to 16 national interest claims
for cultural heritage conservation and eleven marine value areas. V364 is reported to have
indirect cumulative effects on 15 national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation and ten
marine value areas.
For cumulative effects on specific cultural environments, it is expected that there will be less
indirect cumulative effects in Skagerrak, given that the energy areas are further out into the sea
compared to those in Kattegat. However, some cumulative effects may occur when establishing
V352 and V360, mainly in the value area Väderöarna and Ramsvikslandet. When establishing the
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licensed V357 together with V359, the cumulative effects may be greater. Here, the greatest
cumulative impact on cultural environments will be on Pater Noster, Marstrand and the western
part of Orust. The combined direct and indirect effects of V359 on the North Kattegat value area
and the previous mentioned areas are expected to entail relatively large cumulative effects. In
Kattegat, V317 and V364, combined with energy areas in the zero alternative and its relative
proximity, can have indirect cumulative effects on cultural environments along the coast of
Halland and northwestern Skåne. Morups tånge, Träslövsläge and Vastaddalen are the cultural
environments that are cumulatively primarily affected by the establishment of V317 in
combination with energy areas in the zero alternative. V364 in combination with surrounding
energy areas can give indirect cumulative effects mainly on Tyludden-Tylön.
Table 29 below shows the total sum of cumulative impacts from each energy area in
Skagerrak/Kattegat. The highest cumulative impact on national interest claims for cultural
heritage conservation and marine value areas is V364.
Table 29. Cumulative effects in Skagerrak/Kattegat from energy areas on national interest claims for cultural conservation and
marine value areas, based on the number of cultural environments affected, as well as its proximity. The higher the value, the
higher the cumulative impact. The method is described in the method section Chapter 8.
Cumulative impact on national interest Cumulative impact on marine value
Energy area claims for cultural heritage areas
conservation
V317 64,5 47
V352 60,5 21
V359 95 43
V360 16,5 7
V364 104,5 49,5
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Effects on the management of water, soil and the physical
environment in general
Energy extraction
In the planning area Skagerrak/Kattegat there are good conditions for wind power with high wind
speeds. In the northern part it is deep, which requires wind farms with floating foundations. From
north of Gothenburg and south, it is shallower and possible with bottom-fixed foundations. The
transmission network on land is well developed since the Ringhals nuclear power plant is located
on the coast of Halland.
Despite good conditions, there are several challenges. The plan area is relatively small and with
limited space. It is also relatively crowded with a lot of ongoing activities in the sea areas and
along the coast with potential conflicts of interest. Coastal areas are also relatively densely
populated. Extensive national interest claims exist in both coastal and marine areas including:
recreation, cultural environment, nature values, shipping and ports, and commercial fishing.
The plan's guidance on energy extraction is based on a adopted marine spatial plan, a national
interest in wind power, planning documents and Proposals for suitable energy extraction areas in
the marine spatial plan (Energy Agency 2023a), which is handled as a public interest of
substantial importance. The adopted marine spatial plan, national interest claims for wind power
and municipal comprehensive plans have also been taken into account.
The draft marine spatial plan includes nine areas for energy extraction. Areas cover a total area
of approximately 1,060 km2, corresponding to approximately 11 percent of the plan area and are
estimated to generate an annual electricity production of approximately 20 TWh, based on
assumptions of 5 MW/km2 and 4000 full load hours, see plan document part 6.1 for further
description (the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025). There are four
permitted parks within the marine spatial plan area (V303, V361, V305, V357).
The map below, Figure 73, shows all energy areas in the marine spatial plan, zero alternatives
(permitted) and areas in the initial planning documentation, Proposals for suitable energy
extraction areas in the marine spatial plan presented in 2023 (Energy Agency 2023a). The map
also shows a grading of the conditions for energy extraction in each energy area, based on wind
and depth conditions. Note that the classification is limited to these factors. Areas with a lower
classification may have other advantages, such as proximity to connectivity or storage facilities,
or may have conflicts of interest. Higher rated areas may in turn have disadvantages such as
distance or limitations in connection or storage capacity or more or more severe conflicts of
interest. With regard to conflicts of interest, see the overall assessment, as well as the respective
assessment aspects and the need for adjustments when establishing a wind farm.
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Figure 73. Map of energy areas in plan proposals, zero alternatives, initial planning basis, and conditions for energy extraction
based on wind and depth conditions.
- 233 -
Area-specific assessments, nature and conditions for energy extraction
All energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat are included in the documentation on suitable energy
extraction areas for marine spatial plans presented in 2023 (Energy Agency 2023a). The
assessment of each energy area and its conditions for energy extraction has here been limited to
assessment of the nature of wind and depth conditions and is made on the basis of a three-point
scale as shown in Table 30 below. For more information see Section 8. Method.
Table 30. Grouping, for the wind speed and depth indicators.
Group/points Wind speed, medium Depth, medium
1 Less than 8,5 m/s Depths exceeding -70 m
2 Between 8,5 and 9 m/s Between -40 and -70 m
3 Greater than 9 m/s Founder than -40 m
The marine spatial plan consists of two sea basins and the assessment of energy areas is
presented from north to south below, see Table 31.
Skagerrak
The plan includes four areas using energy extraction V352, V357, V359, V360, of which one
(V357) has a licensed project. Almost all energy areas are considered to have very good wind
conditions.
- Most of the areas are assessed to be located in areas with average depths of more than 70
metres, where area V360 is located in a particularly deep area.
- Area V359 is estimated to be located on some shallower area, with an average depth of
between 40 and 70 meters.
- The areas are assumed to be designed for wind farms with floating foundations, except for
area V359, which has been assessed as sufficiently shallow for bottom-fixed foundations.
- All areas are fully or partially located in the exclusive economic zone. Area V359 is also
partly located in the territorial sea, within the planned areas of Kungälv and Öckerö
municipality.
Kattegat
The marine spatial plan guides on five areas using energy extraction, which also includes three
areas with permit-granted parks. All energy areas are considered to have very good wind
conditions, and are located in relatively shallower areas than in the northern plan area. In addition
to the energy areas V303, V305, V361 with licensed wind farms, the plan provides guidance on
additional areas for energy extraction in V317 and V364.
- Areas V317 is located alongside V305, where permits are available for the establishment of a
wind farm. The average depth is estimated to be between 40 and 70 meters with the
assumption of establishing a wind farm with bottom-fixed foundations. Both areas are located
within the territorial sea and municipal plan area for Falkenberg municipality.
- Area V364 is shallower than 40 meters, mostly within the territorial sea and within Halmstad
municipality's plan area. Wind farm is assumed to consist of bottom-fixed foundations.
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The plan also guides on the use of electricity transmission. This includes the two parallel
transmission network cables Konti-Skan 1 and Konti-Skan 2 which run between Lindome in
Sweden and Vester Hassing in Jutland, Denmark. Two cable connections between Kristinelund in
Sweden and Skibstrupgård in Denmark, the so-called Öresund cables, are located in the
boundary between the marine spatial plan area Skagerrak/Kattegat and the Baltic Sea.
Table 31. Plan proposal Skagerrak/Kattegat. Overview of guidance on energy extraction, location and conditions.
Skagerrak/Ka Area Design Km2 Of which Municipality Estimated Adoption; wind, Depth
ttegat ation Approx. km2 in electricity Typ Group Group
Sea area; (Permissio territorial production,
North to n=zero sea ~22 TWh*
South alternative km (12
) NM)
Skagerrak V352 E(utr)f 180 70 Tanum 3,6 Liquid 2 1
V357 _ _
Skagerrak 160 O 3,2 Liquid
(Permit) EFN
Kungälv, Bottom- 3 2
Skagerrak V359 100 65 2,0
E(utr)f Öckerö fixed
E(utr) 3 1
Skagerrak V360 190 3,8 Liquid
Nf
V303 Bottom- _ _
Kattegat 120 2,4
(Permit) EF fixed
V305 Falkenberg _ _
Bottom-
Kattegat (Permissio 25 25 0,5
fixed
n) EF
Falkenberg Bottom- 3 2
Kattegat V317 65 65 1,3
EF fixed
V361 Bottom- _ _
Kattegat 35 0 0,7
(Permit) Efk fixed
Halmstad Bottom- 3 3
Kattegat V364 180 170 3,6
Efkn fixed
Total, 20
approximat 1 060 395
ely
* Assumption according to marine spatial plan, 5MW/km2, 4000 full load hours.
General description
For the marine spatial plan, there are good conditions for energy extraction in terms of wind and
depth conditions. Wind conditions are very good, however, with a relatively large proportion of the
area with the energy areas located in relatively deep areas.
The size of the energy areas is also important for suitability and investment conditions. The
energy areas in the marine spatial plan vary in size, from around 25 to 180 km2, with an average
size of around 120 km2, which is smaller compared to the energy areas in the other plan areas.
Depth conditions are important for the feasibility of wind power projects in terms of investment
costs and technology choices. At depths down to about 70 meters, construction is assumed
primarily with bottom-fixed foundations, at greater depths, mainly floating foundations are
assumed. Areas with conditions for bottom-fixed foundations are likely to be realised earlier than
floating foundations due to their lower construction costs and more established technology
(Energy Agency, 2023a). This allows the plan’s guidance on energy extraction to be assessed as
beneficial from both a short and a long-term perspective. The three northernmost energy areas
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are in relatively deep areas with average depths of less than 70 metres, where the wind farms are
assumed to consist of floating foundations.
Surface distribution of the areas by depth and foundation type, see Figure 74 below. Depths vary
within and between energy areas, but in terms of surface distribution, half of the areas have an
average depth deeper than 70 meters, about 30 percent of the surface of the average depth
shallower than 40 meters, the remaining area has an average depth of between 40 and 70
meters. Approximately half of the plan’s energy areas, approximately 530 km2, are assumed to
be suitable for wind farms with bottom-fixed foundations. The remaining areas are expected to
consist of floating foundations.
Figure 74. Distribution of areas for energy extraction (km2), average depth and foundation type.
The distance of the areas to the connection point for electricity distribution or storage is also
important in terms of profitability and investment cost. Where actual access points actually end up
depends on a number of factors and involves relatively large uncertainties. The distance to the
connection point depends, for example, on the appropriate and possible connection point to the
transmission network, depth conditions, as well as on the choice of technology and on the design
and possible location of storage and energy carriers, see also method section. Assessment of
distance is not included in the criteria assessment but is shown to some extent with regard to
whether the energy area is located within the territorial sea or not. If areas are located in the
territorial sea is also relevant because of overlaps with municipal planning, which, among other
things, also affects the decision-making and permit process. A slightly larger proportion of the
plan's surfaces for energy extraction, just over 60 percent, are located outside the territorial sea,
about 22 kilometres from the baseline, see Figure 75 below. This can have a significant factor in
connection costs and maintenance, as well as being relevant to the current permit process.
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Figure 75. Distribution of energy extraction areas (km2), territorial sea and exclusive economic zone.
Marine spatial plan, zero alternatives and guidance on energy extraction
The potential for energy extraction and electricity production is estimated on the basis of the
surfaces for energy extraction in the plan proposal to be approximately 20 TWh, calculated on the
basis of approximately 1060 km2 and assumptions of 5 MW/ km2 and 4000 full load hours. The
corresponding area for energy extraction in the baseline scenario (permitted) is approximately
345 km2, see Table 32 below.
Table 32. Energy extraction guidance, baseline/permitted.
Skagerrak/Kattegat
Areas of energy; Of which km2 in Municipal Adoption;
North to South Area Km2, territorial sea planning Typ
Approx. ~22km area
V357 Southwest Sea Exercise Area Floating
160 0
Skagen -
V303 North Red Bank 120 0 Bottom-
- fixed
V305 Southeast Morup Bank Bottom-
25 25 Falkenberg fixed
V361 35 Bottom-
0 fixed
North Little Middelgrund -
Total 346 24 -
approximately -
Certain areas of national interest and public interest of substantial importance for wind farms
have been considered incompatible with other uses. The original planning documents of public
interest of substantial importance identified 11 areas suitable for offshore wind power in
Skagerrak/Kattegat, with a total area of approximately 1,900 km2. During the planning process,
these areas have been adjusted and some have been excluded taking into account other
interests such as recreation, defence, shipping and commercial fishing. Total areas for energy
extraction in the draft marine spatial plan, zero alternatives, public interest of substantial
importance, national interest claims, and adopted marine spatial plan, see table below.
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Table 33. Estimated area for energy extraction in plan proposals, zero alternatives, public interest of substantial importance,
national interest claims and adopted marine spatial plan (Government, 2022).
Skagerrak/Kattegat, approximate
Indicative basis for energy extraction area (km2)
Plan proposal 1060
Zero alternative 345
Public interest of substantial importance, Swedish Energy Agency 1875
(2023b)
- Of which surface in planes 995
National interest claims 320
- Of which surface in level, approx. km2 15
Plan adopted 155
The plan’s guidance on energy extraction, including consideration guidance, is considered to
contribute to the achievement of objectives for offshore wind energy. The plan is also expected to
contribute positively to increased predictability for the activities concerned, as well as as a
knowledge base for permit processes, regional and municipal planning. The areas that were
initially identified as suitable for energy extraction (Energy Agency, 2023b) and that during the
planning process were assessed as not being most suitable for use, mean that the total area for
energy extraction has decreased, which can be assumed to affect offshore wind power activities
and concerned sectors within the plan area.
Realisation, projects and bidding zones
Based on the target of a total of 120 TWh in annual electricity production for all plans, it is
assumed that a large proportion of the energy areas in the proposal for amended marine spatial
plans need to be realised. A prerequisite for realising the marine spatial plan's energy areas is
investment interest in the construction and operation of wind farms. In principle, all energy areas
in the plan area are undergoing permit processes for the establishment of wind power.
Assumptions about potential electricity generation and allocation between bidding zones can be
made based on designers’ applications and specified connection areas. According to project
information and investment data from the County Administrative Boards' interactive map service
Vindbrukskollen (County Administrative Boards u.y.), it can be assumed that approximately 75
percent of the potential electricity production in the plan area is connected to bidding zone 3, the
remaining to bidding zone 4, see Figure 76 below.
For more detailed information on electricity consumption and related bidding zones and users,
please refer to chapter 2.4.1 Energy regarding electricity consumption and industry, transport
sector and households.
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Figure 76. Assumptions on connection bidding zones.
Indirect impact - energy
Guidance on energy extraction in the marine spatial plan may involve indirect land claims for
cabling and other electricity transmission infrastructure and/or various forms of energy storage,
such as hydrogen. This in turn may imply additional land and water claims as well as potential
indirect environmental impacts and additional coastal and terrestrial risk management (see
section 2.4.1.). The extent of land claims on coast and land, and where these land claims will take
place, depends, among other things, on the type of technology and wind turbines, as well as the
connection point for each wind farm.
Achievement of objectives, national and municipal interests - energy
The plan proposal for Skagerrak/Kattegat contributes to the achievement of objectives regarding
offshore wind power assignments and national energy policy objectives, as well as national
targets on climate and fossil-free electricity supply, significant for the transformation of the
industry and transport sector and employment at local and regional level, see section 2.4.1.
With regard to essential functions and activities, according to national classification (MSB, 2021),
the plan proposal is expected to contribute to the conditions for ensuring electricity supply in the
country. However, there are some questions regarding the relatively large proportion of energy
areas located outside the territorial boundary, in the Swedish exclusive economic zone, regarding
potential risk and impact on the essential functions such as maintaining or ensuring, for example,
control and monitoring, and maintenance and fault repair of infrastructure.
For territorial sea areas, national marine spatial plans overlap with regional and municipal plans.
The plan’s guidance on energy areas overlaps with municipal plans for the municipalities of
Kungälv, Öckerö, Falkenberg and Halmstad (Table 31).
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Cumulative and transboundary effects
Cumulative effects on areas for energy extraction can mean impacts between the areas, both
positive and negative. When establishing several areas nearby, there may be some synergies in
terms of infrastructure and maintenance. Negative cumulative impacts can occur based on
limitations and scope of nearby wind farms, limitations in connection capacity, increased levels of
conflicts of interest and possible impact on wind conditions between the farms. This may be
relevant both nationally and in relation to the establishment of wind farms in neighbouring
countries.
The marine spatial plan’s guidance on energy extraction can also have an impact on and have an
impact on neighbouring countries, similar to those identified at national level. This applies, for
example, to the impact on and possible coexistence with shipping, nature values such as bird
paths, as well as recreation and cultural environments. There is extensive international maritime
activity in the plan area, including passage to and from the Baltic Sea and out to
Skagerrak/Kattegat. The impact on neighbouring countries may also include the impact on
migratory routes for migratory birds to Denmark and other surrounding areas, as well as the
impact on outdoor recreation and recreational boating activities that occur frequently between
neighbouring countries Denmark and Norway. See the respective assessment for more
information.
Recreation
Skagerrak/Kattegat has large areas of high nature value in the marine spatial planning area and
many of them are nature reserves and Natura 2000 areas. In addition, there is the marine
national park Kosterhavet National Park in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Recreation is extensive
throughout the marine spatial planning area with significant tourism. Recreational fishing and
boating are an important part of outdoor life in Skagerrak/Kattegat. In principle, the entire
coastline of Skagerrak/Kattegat is covered by national interest claims for recreation or national
interest for mobile recreation. Wind power installations can have a large impact on experience
values and the effects will be greater if the areas are used by many people. In the proposal for a
marine spatial plan, Skagerrak/Kattegat has a total of nine proposed energy areas, four of which
are included in the zero alternative.
There are two energy areas in the marine spatial planning area of Skagerrak/Kattegat that are
considered to entail a risk of large negative effects on recreation: V317 and V352. These areas
are located within or partly within the territorial boundary and are all considered to be relatively
coastal. For two additional energy areas, the risk of negative effects on recreation is considered
to be medium: V359 and V364. One energy area, V360, is considered to entail a risk of marginal
effects on outdoor activities. V303, V305, V357 and V361 are authorised and included in the zero
alternative and are therefore not subject to an impact assessment. Figure 77 below shows the
estimated negative effect of the respective energy area by colour code.
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Figure 77. Potential negative effect on recreation of proposals for energy extraction areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color
shows great effect and light color shows little effect.
- 241 -
Area-specific assessments
Skagerrak
Four proposed energy areas (V352, V357, V359, V360) are located in Skagerrak/Kattegat.
Energy area V352 is located approximately 30 kilometres from the mainland coast and
approximately 11 kilometres from Kosterhavet National Park. V352 may affect the national
interest in mobile recreation Norra Bohuslän, with conditions for bathing places, fishing places
and opportunities for boating. The energy area may also affect national interest claims for
recreation Northern Bohuslän coast – outer coastal zone, as well as Kosterhavet National Park,
east of the area. In the national interest there are activities such as hiking, rock climbing and
kiting/paragliding. Values shown in the value description are pristineness in the outermost
coastline, appealing landscape with sensitivity to wind power exploitation. Visual impact from
wind power on sensitive recreation values is considered to exist throughout the area (Energy
Agency, 2023b), with a significant risk of negative impact to the east, which gradually decreases
to the west. V352 has been adapted by removing the northern part of the area. Cumulative
impacts need to be considered.
V359 is expected to have a negative effect on national interest claims for recreation Southern
Bohuslän coast and Gothenburg archipelago, which is about 12.5 kilometers away, and the area
Göta älv – subarea Nordre älvs estuarium about 20 kilometers away. The distance is considered
to have a visual impact from V359 on the areas. Current activities according to the values of the
recreation areas are cultural experiences, kiting/paragliding, diving, horseback riding and surfing.
Eligibility criteria based on value descriptions are attractive landscapes. Energy areas in
Skagerrak/Kattegat are considered to entail a risk of cumulative impact on experience values, as
a result of exploitation in the landscape and disturbing obstacle lighting.
Kattegat
Five proposed energy areas (V303, V305, V317, V361, V364) are located in Kattegat. V317 is
located near the mainland coast around 7 kilometers. The energy area is considered to have a
potential negative impact on recreation. The national interest Skrea strand-Tylösand is close to
the area with activities such as beach life, swimming and boating and the values of the view to
the sea. Morups and Röde bank are also close to the energy area with values of untouchedness,
stillness, silence, low noise level and attractive landscape that may be negatively affected by the
establishment of wind power in V317. Finally, there is a national interest in mobile recreation in
the Halland coast just under a kilometre from the V317, which can have a direct impact.
Energy area V364 is expected to have a potential negative effect on the mobile recreation on the
coast of Halland, Kullaberg and Hallandsåsen with adjacent coastal areas. An indirect negative
effect on national interest claims for recreation mainly in the areas of Bjärekusten-Skälderviken,
Skrea strand-Tylösand and Laholmsbukten can also be given. The areas include activities such
as boating, swimming and diving, with values such as view out over the sea. The nearby areas of
Röde Bank and Stora Middelgrund in the sea area can also be affected by V364 as the areas
include values of untouchedness, stillness, silence, low noise and attractive landscapes in the
form of views of the sea. The establishment of wind power was considered in the Swedish Energy
Agency's report (2023b) to have less visual impact on national interest claims. The cumulative
effects in Skagerrak/Kattegat clusters are important to take into account, despite smaller values
of stillness in this region that are more linked to activities such as beach life, but also the national
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areas of interest at sea that have activities such as recreational fishing and harbour porpoise
safari.
Accessibility
Barrier effects are estimated to be greatest in Skagerrak/Kattegat compared to the other two
marine spatial planning areas. Negative effects on the activities and experiences within the
designated national interests for recreation can occur when establishing wind power. Despite no
direct overlap, apart from permit-granted energy areas, of national interests for recreation in
Skagerrak/Kattegat, activities and experiences can be affected, especially the more sea-based
ones. Skagerrak/Kattegat has an extensive coastal recreation in the form of boating, recreational
fishing, swimming, kiting/paragliding and diving. Recreational fishing and boating are considered
to be most affected related to accessibility in Skagerrak/Kattegat, especially in the energy areas
V352 and V359. Kattegat is unique with its sea-based national interest along the coast of Halland,
situated on banks and foundations. The establishment of offshore wind power can create major
barrier effects for these national interest claims. Apart from the energy areas included in the zero
alternative, V317 and V364 are expected to create these effects on nearby national interests,
including the mobile recreation along the coast of Halland a few kilometres from V317, as well as
recreation, primarily at Morups and Röde bank, and Stora Middelgrund. The national interest
claims are covered by activities such as recreational fishing, diving and harbour porpoise safaris
that are considered to be affected. Recreational fishing has, however, been restricted by
regulation.
Recreational boating in Skagerrak/Kattegat occurs mainly along the coastline, where the
Bohuslän coast has the greatest activity of recreational boats. Also out at sea there is great
activity and some major stretches of recreational boating. Apart from areas included in the zero
alternative, V359 and V364 have the highest activity of recreational boating within the energy
areas and are considered to have negative effects on recreation, along recreational boating
activity and trends towards recreational boating routes (Emodnet, 2022). See Figure 78 and Fel!
Hittar inte referenskälla. below. Sections of recreational boating to and from Öresund and
between the coast of Halland and the Bjäre Peninsula have greater activity, where V317 and
V364 are considered to be physical barriers to recreational boating. Many routes to and from
Bohuslän and Denmark also pass through V359, which can have negative effects on recreational
boating there.
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Figure 78. Prevalence of recreational boating activity within proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat based on an average
of hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022 (Emodnet, 2022).
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Table 34. Prevalence of recreational boating activity in proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat based on an average of
hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022. The data is based on activity from at least one leisure boat in the energy field
(Emodnet, 2022).
Energy area Recreational boat activity average hours/month 2017 -
2022
V317 8,9
V352 4,1
V359 10,6
V360 1,8
V364 23,2
Other impacts on recreation
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, V352 is considered to have a negative effect on the national interest for
unbroken coast (Chapter 4, Section 3 of the Environmental Code) Northern Bohuslän. Within the
national interest, no high objects may occur, which means that higher objects within V352 about
12.5 kilometers away means that the visual effects are considered to be large. The national
interest includes values such as pristine coasts, conditions for recreation and tourism, as well as
high values for nature, geology and culture (County Administrative Board, 2000), whereupon
these may be indirectly affected by V352. V352 is also located about 11.5 kilometers from
Kosterhavet National Park. The national park has high recreation values and is a popular tourist
destination. Various activities and recreational boating are extensive in the area. The proximity of
the V352 to the park can cause negative effects on recreation and its experiences, not least
visually. V359 is located about 7.5 kilometers from the national interest for high-exploited coast
Södra Bohuslän (Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code). However, the national interest
is considered to have greater resilience for offshore wind power in V359 compared to V352,
despite the fact that it includes conditions for recreation with values of, among other things,
silence. The national interest includes conditions for mobile recreation, recreational environments,
accessible and attractive bathing, beach and archipelago areas, as well as other environments
and values linked to recreation (Länsstyrelsen, 2000). These may be affected by energy area
V359, mainly linked to the visual impact. In Kattegat there is a national interest for high-exploited
coast along the entire coast of Halland and Skåne. Both V317 and V364 are expected to have
indirect visual effects on national interests, but no major effects.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, some indirect effects can be given by Danish energy areas, especially one
east of Skagen and three east of Grenå in Denmark. The Gothenburg archipelago is located
about 25 kilometres from a Danish energy area, which together with the establishment of wind
power in V359 can provide the experience of a large contiguous area and constitute greater
cumulative effects on the values within the national interest claim. Röde Bank and Stora and Lilla
Middelgrund's national interest claims for recreation can also be indirectly affected by the three
Danish energy areas east of Grenå. Together with the establishment of wind power in Swedish
energy areas off the coast of Halland, they can cause greater cumulative effects for values such
as untouchedness, stillness, silence, low noise and attractive landscapes.
In the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat, there are energy areas that can indirectly
affect recreation values in Denmark and Norway. Areas V359 are particularly important due to its
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relative proximity to Skagen in Denmark about 24.5 kilometer away. The current impact on
crossings for recreational boats to and from neighbouring countries is considered to be large for
Skagerrak/Kattegat. Several routes to and from Denmark, but also to and from Norway, are in
Skagerrak/Kattegat. V359 is expected to have the greatest impact on crossings of recreational
boats, mainly linked to Danish Skagen.
The cumulative effects on recreation are estimated to be greater in Skagerrak/Kattegat than in
other marine spatial planning areas. In Skagerrak/Kattegat, some cumulative impact is expected
due to designated energy areas. The designated national interests for recreation are few, but
large in area and cover the entire marine area's coastline. V352 is expected to give visual
cumulative effects on the national interest for recreation Northern Bohuslän, as well as the
national interest claims for recreation Northern Bohuslän's inner and outer coast. V359 is
expected to indirectly give marginal cumulative impact on the mobile recreation in Northern
Bohuslän and the Halland coast, but greater for the national interest claims for recreation. Nine
areas may be indirectly affected, mainly the coast of Södra Bohuslän, the Gothenburg
archipelago and the Göta älv – Nordre älvs estuarium sub-area. In Kattegat, V317 can provide
indirect cumulative effects for the national interest for recreation on the coast of Halland, as well
as Kullaberg and Hallandsåsen with adjacent coastal areas. Energy areas may also indirectly
give rise to cumulative effects for twelve national interest claims for recreation, primarily for
Morups and Röde bank, as well as Skrea strand-Tylösand. V364 can potentially provide indirect
cumulative effects for the same national interests for mobile recreation as V317. V364 can
potentially also give rise to indirect cumulative effects on eleven national interest claims for
recreation, primarily on the nearby Röde bank, Stora Middelgrund, Skrea strand-Tylösand and
Bjärekusten-Skälderviken.
For cumulative effects on specific national interests for recreation in Skagerrak/Kattegat, certain
areas are identified that tend to be affected more cumulatively when establishing the energy
areas. In Skagerrak, the mobile recreation in Northern Bohuslän can be affected cumulatively
when establishing wind power in areas V352 and V360, which can be seen as a larger coherent
area from within the national interest. Even the energy area V357, which is included in the zero
alternative, can have some impact on the national interest. For national interest claims for
recreation, it is primarily Northern Bohuslän's outer coast where visual cumulative impact from
V352 and V360 is greatest. Further south, the V359 together with the V357 in the zero alternative
may indirectly affect the coast of Södra Bohuslän, the Gothenburg archipelago and the Göta älv –
Nordre älvs estuarium sub-area. In Kattegat, the national interest in mobile recreation on the
Halland coast is expected to be affected by the establishment of most energy areas, especially
considering the areas within the zero alternative. National interest claims for recreation at sea on
embankments and shallows can be affected cumulatively when establishing in most energy areas
and create barrier effects for those areas in addition to the indirect impact. Otherwise, it is
primarily Skrea strand - Tylösand that is affected cumulatively.
Tourism
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, seven out of eight coastal municipalities write in their comprehensive
plans that the tourism industry is an important industry (Båstad municipality, 2020; Municipality of
Sotenäs, 2024). The accessibility to the sea and what it has to offer in the form of activities such
as swimming, diving, surfing, boating and recreational fishing is important for the tourism
conducted in the area. Furthermore, the open sea with beautiful views and a free horizon are
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factors that attract visitors. The conditions for the tourism industry are closely linked to qualities in
landscapes, conditions for recreation and cultural environments with the indirect consequence
that where there is a high risk of impact on these values, there is also a risk of impact on the
tourism industry. However, according to research, there are uncertainties about what the impact
on the tourism industry might look like. One of the reasons is that people perceive wind power in
different ways (LTU, 2023). Studies suggest that the majority do not allow elements of wind farms
to influence the choice of destination. There are also some that are attracted by wind turbines
while others are discouraged, see Section 2.4.3. Recreation. Most of those who choose to forgo a
destination because of visible wind turbines instead choose to visit a nearby destination.
Kattegat
According to the municipalities in the area's comprehensive plans, the tourism industry is an
important part of the business sector. During the summer months of 2022, the population of
Halland increased by about 60 000 inhabitants, which means that the region had the third largest
increase in Sweden (Region Halland, 2024). The tourism industry makes a relatively large
contribution to the gross regional product. Furthermore, there is value in the creation of
employment. There are nine energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat, five of which are located in
Kattegat off the coast of Halland. The areas are relatively coastal. In three areas there are
licensed wind farms (V305, V361, V303) located at a distance between 8 and 24 kilometers from
the coast. Energy area V317 is located about 11 kilometer from Falkenberg. V364 is located
about 17 kilometer from Halmstad, about 14 kilometer from Haverdal and about 29 kilometer from
Båstad and about 19 kilometer from Torekov. The impact on the tourism industry could possibly
lead to a redistribution effect where visitors choose not to have places with visible wind turbines
such as along the coast of Halland and instead choose to spend their stay, for example, in the
southernmost parts of Kattegat or in Skagerrak.
The entire Kattegat is covered by Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code, which means
that the interests of tourism and recreation must be taken into account in particular when
assessing the admissibility of development companies or other interventions in the environment.
See Section 5.4.2 Recreation.
Skagerrak
In the Skagerrak there are four energy areas that, in an overall comparison with those in Kattegat,
are located farther from the coast but are larger in area. In one area (V357) there is a licensed
wind farm, located about 29 kilometer from the coast. Energy area V359 is most coastal and is
located about 19 kilometer from Öckerö and about 20 kilometer from Marstrand. V352 is located
about 25 kilometer from the Kosteröarna islands and about 32 kilometer from Grebbestad. V360
is located about 47 kilometer from Smögen. In Skagerrak, the tourism industry is important for
several coastal municipalities (Blå översiktsplan för norra Bohuslän, 2018). In large parts of
Bohuslän, the population more than doubles during the summer months (Statistics Sweden,
2023). In several places, it is the income from tourism during these months that allows a trader to
keep the business going for the rest of the year (Gothenburg Region, 2019). At local level,
therefore, a redistribution effect due to visitors opting out of locations with visible wind turbines
could be noticeable.
The upper part of Skagerrak is also covered by Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code.
See Section 5.4.2 Recration.
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Defence
No assessment is made at marine spatial planning level for the interests of defence. See chapter
2.4.4 for general effects.
Shipping
The planning area Skagerrak/Kattegat is considered to have relatively high maritime intensity,
with extensive national and international maritime traffic to and from ports. Ship routes to and
from Sweden and between neighbouring countries occur, such as Norway and Denmark, as well
as maritime transport to Europe and other parts of the world. The plan area also has significant
port operations, with about 20 percent of all Swedish foreign trade going through the Port of
Gothenburg. Maritime transport includes freight vessels, as well as tankers and fishing vessels
(EMODnet, 2022). In the planning area there are also shipping lanes that are part of the IMO's
international routing system. The routing system is a vessel traffic control measure aimed at
reducing the risk of accidents.
Proposal for a marine spatial plan, energy extraction and shipping
In the plan area there are four energy areas where there are permits for offshore wind power,
V357 in the northern plan area and V303, V305 and V361 in the southern plan area.
Table 35. Energy areas with authorised wind farms.
Skagerrak/Kattegat Adoption;
Energy Areas, Permitted Typ
North to South Area Km2
Approximately
Liquid
V357 Southwest Sea Exercise Area Skagen 160
V303 North Red Bank 120 Bottom-fixed
Bottom-fixed
V305 Southeast Morup Bank 25
Bottom-fixed
V361 North Little Middelgrund 35
Total, approximately - 345 -
The use of shipping in the marine spatial plan is based on national interest claims for shipping
that coincide in large parts with established shipping lanes and shipping routes. Marine spatial
plans do not provide guidance on specific safety distances to shipping, but distances will be
required for all areas using energy extraction. The distance is adapted to local conditions
according to risk assessment (Swedish Maritime Administration, Swedish Transport Agency,
2023).
In the proposal for a marine spatial plan, Skagerrak/Kattegat has nine proposed energy areas, of
which four permit-granted are included in the zero alternative. All energy areas in the plan area,
except V360 in the northern plan area, are adjacent to fairways with national interest for shipping
and shipping routes.
The energy areas V357 (permitted/zero alternative) and V359 are adjacent to two national
interest fairways, which include the main fairway from northern Skagen to Gothenburg, and north.
With regard to the energy areas located on either side of the fairway, there is a risk of cumulative
effects that need to be taken into account in further permit assessment, construction and
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operation. This also applies to the southern planning area, in particular the energy areas V303
(permitted/zero alternative) and the plan’s energy area V317.
To the south is guided with energy areas V303, V305, V317, V361, V364 and all adjoining
fairways with national interest, as well as IMO-classified routes. There are permits for wind farms
for V303, V305 and V361 and safety distances from shipping are specified in the respective
permits.
- 249 -
Figure 79. Relative potential negative effect of energy areas on shipping in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect
and light color shows little effect.
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Indirect impact
A potential indirect impact may be an increased risk of allision, i.e. collision between ships and
wind turbines. Allision can have environmental effects such as oil spills, etc. Other potential
indirect impacts from guidance in areas of energy concern general accessibility for rescue and
remediation work in maritime accidents at sea. For more information, see the Swedish Maritime
Administration’s and the Swedish Transport Agency’s knowledge base on offshore wind power
(Ahlström 2023, the Swedish Maritime Administration and the Swedish Transport Agency 2023).
Further information regarding spatial analyses of shipping in the area can be found in the
Lighthouse report Maritime interest in sea space in light of an increased expansion of wind power
(Hjerpe Olausson, J. et al., 2024).
Assessment Marine Spatial Plan
Indicative use of shipping in the marine spatial plan is based on national interest claims for
shipping that largely coincide with national interest claims, established shipping lanes and
shipping routes. For the planning alterantive and including areas with licensed parks, all are
located adjacent to one or more national interest-classified fairways, where some energy areas
are also adjacent to the IMO route.
In addition to direct impact on shipping and navigation, the impact may thus include indirect
sequential effects, with regard to increased collision risk and with fixed installations, as well as the
risk of impact on accessibility in case of need for rescue operations.
In terms of zero alternatives and proposed marine spatial plans, the assessment is that the
potential impact on shipping is relatively small, both for Swedish and international shipping,
provided that permits for the establishment of wind farms take into account existing
recommendations (the Swedish Maritime Administration and the Swedish Transport Agency,
2023) and the need for safety distances.
Safety distances and other adaptations are handled and decided upon in the permit assessment
for the wind farm.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
Nearby energy areas can have a cumulative impact through multidimensional effects on maritime
routes, i.e. wind farms on several sides of the fairway. This also applies to areas with currently
licensed wind farms, such as V317 and licensed parks in area V303.
The same assessment also applies to shipping to and from neighbouring countries and
international traffic in the plan area.
In the planning area, there is extensive international traffic, both to and from Sweden, as well as
maritime traffic to and from the Baltic Sea. Kattegat is particularly important for maritime traffic as
it is one of only two routes into the Baltic Sea for large vessels.
Commercial fishing
Skagerrak/Kattegat stretches from north of Helsingborg in the south up to Strömstad in the north.
Commercial fishing is widespread in the area and includes both fish and shellfish. Commercial
fishing is geographically extensive and the surface area for commercial fishing is relatively large
in the marine spatial plan. Trawl fisheries for Norway lobster and pelagic fisheries are carried out
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in large parts of the marine area. Trawl fishing for Northern prawn is carried out extensively in the
northern part of the area. Even demersal fish are caught as by-catch, and a few vessels also
conduct a directed fishery for demersal fish. Some creel fishing also takes place to a lesser extent
in order to fish for Norway lobster and lobster closer to the coast. Fishing with other passive gear
occurs to varying degrees throughout the area. Shellfish have relatively low geographical mobility,
which means that fishing grounds are more stationary than for other fisheries. As in other offshore
areas, foreign fleets are also being fished in the Skagerrak/Kattegat planning area, mainly by
Danish and Norwegian vessels.
Impact on commercial fisheries
The marine spatial plan indicates the use of commercial fishing in large parts of both Skagerrak
and Kattegat. There are extensive national interest claims for commercial fishing, catch area in
the plan area. Commercial fishing is given priority over energy extraction in areas of national
interest for commercial fishing in V348, V351, V356, V358 and V365. Area V366 also gives
preference to commercial fishing, but on the basis of a general interest of vital importance for
commercial fishing. In areas V303, V359, V361, the guidance means coexistence between
commercial fishing (which corresponds to national interest claims) and energy extraction. In an
area of national interest for commercial fishing in part of the area, V357, energy extraction is
given priority over commercial fishing.
National interest claims for commercial fishing, cod spawning grounds and valuable fish habitat
overlap with energy extraction in V317.
In addition to this, the conduct of commercial fishing outside identified risk claims and public
interests is also significantly affected.
The conditions for coexistence with commercial fishing and thus the impact on commercial fishing
depend on the design, adaptation of the wind farm, the type of foundation of the wind turbines, as
well as on the type of fishing carried out and the adaptations that are possible of the fishing
(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management and Swedish Energy Agency, 2023).
For energy areas V352, V357 and V360 in Skagerrak, energy areas are assumed to consist of
parks with floating foundations. In these areas, bottom trawl fisheries are conducted primarily for
shrimp, but also for Norway lobster, which is not considered to be compatible with this type of
wind farm. Norway lobster and shrimp have relatively low geographical mobility, which is
assumed to limit the possibility of trawl fisheries targeting these species to other areas. The plan's
guidance on the use of energy thus means that priority is given to energy extraction over national
interest claims and the interests of commercial fishing in these three areas. For area V359
bottom-fixed foundations are assumed to be relevant. The area is mainly bottom trawling for
Norway lobster and fish, this fishery is considered to be able to coexist with an established
energy area.
The energy areas V303, V305, V317, V361, V364 in Kattegat are assumed to consist of wind
farms with bottom-fixed foundations. These areas are mainly bottom trawling for Norway lobster
and fish. Trawl fishing for Norway lobster in combination with wind farms with fixed foundations is
considered, after adaptation of the wind farm, to be able to coexist to some extent.
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The annual average landing value during the period 2013-2023 for the pelagic trawl fishery, the
trawl fishery for demersal species such as shrimp and Norway lobster and the creel fishery for
Norway lobster was in Skagerrak/Kattegat SEK 490 million in total. Based on the assumption that
each trawl line passing through proposed energy areas is affected by the establishment of an
energy area, approximately 10 percent of the landing value is estimated to be affected if all
energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat are built. In particular, commercial fishing using trawls for
Norway lobster and trawls for shrimp is affected (Waldo S. & Blomquist J., 2024a). The actual
impact on the landing value depends on the possibility of coexistence or relocation of fisheries to
other areas.
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, there are already four energy areas that have been granted permits. It
corresponds to areas V357, V305, V303 and V361. For V361, the Natura 2000 permit has not
become final. Already licensed wind farms for the energy areas mean that the indicative use and
impact of the marine spatial plan can be assessed to be lower in reality.
All nine areas for energy extraction in the proposal for a marine spatial plan in Skagerrak/Kattegat
are considered to have a potential large impact on the commercial fishing. Based on landing
values and share in the fisheries in question, the impact is considered to be relatively large,
regarding trawl fishing for crayfish and fish, and shrimp fishing. Figures 80 and 81 below show the
impact as a percentage of the total annual landing value per energy area. For areas with permits
for the establishment of wind power, the share is not shown as they are included in the zero
alternative of the impact assessment. The establishment of wind power in the licensed areas,
together with the proposed areas, contributes to a potential cumulative impact. Table 36 below
shows landing values for all areas. Please note that the reporting refers to averages for the whole
period 2013-2023. In some cases, shifts between areas have occurred over time that do not show
the average values. Among other things, such a shift has taken place from the V360 to the V352.
Table 36. Landing value from Swedish fisheries affected by energy areas in SEK million (SEK million) and percentage (%) of
total landing value, for Skagerrak/Kattegat. Average per year 2013-2023. Rounding has taken place to the nearest integer.
Share of
Landing landing
value value
including including
part of share of
fishing in fishing in
Share of other other
landing value countries' countries'
Landing value from Swedish territorial territorial
from Swedish territorial sea and sea and
territorial waters and exclusive economic
Landing value waters and exclusive economic zone
affected by exclusive economic zone zone total affected by
energy areas economic zone affected by (SEK energy
Type of fishing (SEK million) (SEK million) energy areas million) zones
Trawl fisheries
Northern prawn
(bottom trawl) in
Skagerrak/Kattegat 12 103 12% 148 8%
Trawl fisheries
Norway lobster
and fish
(bottom trawl) in
Skagerrak/Kattegat 37 163 23% 204 18%
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Source: Waldo, S. & Blomquist, J., 2024b How is Swedish fishing affected by offshore wind power? Supplementary material
(AgriFood Report, no. 2024:2). AgriFood Economics Centre.
The plan proposal includes an expansion of areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat with particular
consideration to high nature values with regard to birds and reef environments. Areas with special
nature considerations can in the long term, depending on the nature value the consideration
refers to, benefit commercial fishing from potentially strengthening ecosystem services.
- 254 -
Figure 80. The map shows proposed energy areas, use of commercial fishing and national interest claims for commercial fishing
in Skagerrak/Kattegat. The figure also shows the impact as a percentage of the total annual landing value (Northern shrimp) per
energy area.
- 255 -
Figure 81. The map shows proposed energy areas, use of commercial fishing and national interest claims for commercial fishing
in Skagerrak/Kattegat. The figure also shows the impact as a percentage of the total annual landing value (Norway lobster and
fish) per energy area.
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Indirect environmental impact of land and water use
The marine spatial plan's guidance and potential impact on commercial fishing can also have
indirect environmental effects. Changes in the activity of commercial fishing, spatially and in
intensity, may involve the movement of fishing activity to other areas, possibly with longer driving
distances, which may lead to increased air emissions, such as greenhouse gases. It may affect
the conditions for commercial fishing if operating costs rise due to longer distance and driving
time and/or revenues fall due to reduced catch or catch of lesser quality. However, the actual
outcome and indirect environmental impact regarding mileage impact is considered to be highly
uncertain and in the long term also due to the development and conversion of the fleet to more
energy-efficient, better and fossil-free fuels.
The area is used for bottom trawling and pelagic fishing. Potentially, this may mean that the
impact on benthic habitats can be reduced in the energy areas where bottom trawling no longer
takes place. However, the gross effect is mainly local, the total net effect on reduced impact of
benthic habitats depends on, if and to which other areas a possible movement of bottom trawling
takes place.
National, regional, municipal interests
The plan's guidance on the use of commercial fishing confirms, with one exception, national
interest claims for commercial fishing. However, guidance on the use of energy extraction can to
some extent affect the conduct of commercial fishing in the plan area's offshore areas. The
impact on commercial fishing can also affect activities and value chains dependent on marine
resources, as well as other activities and facilities for landing and processing fishery resources.
This includes, for example, port operations of local and regional interest in the plan area, as well
as essential functions related to food security and primary production, see section 2.4.6 on
national and municipal interests.
Most ports in Halland and Västra Götaland have between 2019-2023 had landings from catches
coming from one of the marine spatial plan's energy areas. In Träslövsläge harbour in Varberg
municipality and Glommen harbour in Falkenberg municipality, a large proportion of catches
caught in an energy area are landed. Should all energy areas be built on, 47 percent of the
landing value in Träslövsläge and 49 percent of the landing value in Glommen would be affected
based on an annual average landing value 2019-2023. As some trawl fisheries targeting Norway
lobster and fish are considered to be able to coexist with wind farms, the actual impact depends
on the extent to which coexistence can be achieved and on which energy areas are ultimately
built.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
As in other offshore areas, in addition to Swedish fishing, extensive foreign fishing is taking place
in Swedish waters in Skagerrak/Kattegat, mainly by Danish and Norwegian vessels. The total
potential impact on landing values for all fleets can therefore be significantly higher, as foreign
vessels are assumed to fish to a large extent in the same areas as Swedish vessels.
Denmark's marine spatial plan includes four energy extraction areas in Kattegat. Swedish fishing
is mainly conducted in an energy area off Jutland's northernmost east coast, about 25 kilometers
from Gothenburg's outer archipelago (Vinga) (Swedish Maritime Administration, 2025).
- 257 -
The impact on commercial fishing of all the energy areas in the marine spatial plan for
Skagerrak/Kattegat is considered to have a potentially large impact on the operation of
commercial fishing in the plan area, primarily in the case of shrimp fishing, as well as bottom
trawling for crayfish and fish. This also includes areas with licensed wind farms (V303, V305,
V357, V361), which are relatively significant for crayfish fishing, and are not considered to be
directly affected on the basis of the draft marine spatial plan.
However, not all areas of energy in the marine spatial plan are assumed to be realised, and the
actual impact and aggravation on the conduct of commercial fishing depend on which areas of
energy are actually realised, as well as on opportunities for coexistence. Examples of different
types of adaptation are: the design of the wind farm, adaptations in fisheries, e.g. fishing
methods, as well as possibilities for relocation of fisheries to other areas. However, the possibility
of fishing movements is assumed to depend on current target species, where some e.g. Norway
lobster is more linked to specific locations/habitats.
The plan area also includes fishing from vessels registered in other countries, mainly Danish and
Norwegian fishing vessels. The total potential impact on landing values and related activities for
all fisheries can therefore be significantly higher.
Coastal fishing and creel fishing for Norway lobster, which are mainly conducted closer to the
coast, are not considered to be directly affected by the plan's guidance of energy areas.
Opportunities for commercial fishing are also affected by fishing regulations as certain areas are
limited for commercial fishing. This is partly about the Natura 2000 site Bratten (V366). An area
completely and partially closed to both commercial and recreational fishing is located in the
southern part of the area (large parts of V307). Fishing-free areas or areas limited to fishing thus
affect the possibilities for movement of fishing.
Potential impact on commercial fishing, is also considered to entail indirect effects in terms of
fishing value chains, processing industry, affected landing ports and municipal interests see 2.4.6
about national and municipal interests.
In terms of effects on the profitability of fishing enterprises, these depend on the extent to which
fishing can move, how landings are affected and whether the costs of fishing operations change.
The impact on individual companies depends on how their fishing patterns may need to be
changed.
- 258 -
Overall assessment Skagerrak/Kattegat
Nature and ecological aspects
Skagerrak/Kattegat, with its almost ocean-like conditions, has greater biodiversity compared to
the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia. There are rich bird communities linked mainly to
archipelagos in the north and islands further south. Offshore areas in and around the
embankments Stora and Lilla Middelgrund and Fladen there are important wintering areas for
birds, as well as important migratory routes north Jutland-Bohus coast and Grenå-Anholt-Halland
coast. In Skagerrak/Kattegat, both the Belt Sea population and Skagerrak/Kattegat population of
harbour porpoises occur.
Establishing energy areas in accordance with the proposed marine spatial plan for
Skagerrak/Kattegat would entail a high risk of negative impact on important migratory routes for
birds and a risk of impact on bats. In particular, the four permitted energy areas and included in
the zero alternative contribute to this risk of impact on birds. The additional five energy areas
included in the plan increase the cumulative pressure on birds. Underwater noise from the
construction and operation of offshore wind power can lead to disturbance of marine mammals,
the extent of the disturbance depends on adaptations and consideration measures during both
construction and operation. In this area, there is a need to investigate potential effects and
technologies for both construction, operation and decommissioning in order to minimize the risk
of negative impact in particular on the harbour porpoise.
In Skagerrak/Kattegat there are important biotope-building species such as blue mussel and
Lophelia corals in hard benthic habitats and important burrowing organisms and protected sea
pens in soft bottoms. Trawling is the main pressure on the benthic habitats of Skagerrak/Kattegat.
Here, fish spawning occurs in large parts of the sea area. Specific conditions need to be carefully
investigated during the design process to avoid damaging or negatively affecting habitats rich in
species and worthy of protection.
A potential positive net local impact on benthic habitats may arise if energy use replaces bottom
trawling especially in Skagerrak. Fishing is likely to be partly relocated to adjacent accessible
areas, which would result in the pressure on the benthic habitat being shifted and concentrated.
Recreation, cultural environment and landscape
In Skagerrak the Bohuslän coastline stretches, which in the north is of national interest for
unbroken coastl There is also a marine national park - Kosterhavet. The entire coastline of
Skagerrak/Kattegat is covered by national interest claims for recreation, and the northern parts
also mobile recreation. In this region there is extensive recreational boat traffic, mainly in coastal
areas, but also recreational boat routes offshore between southern Bohuslän and Skagen. Södra
Bohuslän is of national interest for high-exploited coast with several cultural environments, such
as lighthouses and fishing villages with strong links to the marine environment and qualities such
as unobstructed horizon. Marine cultural heritage sites are mainly found along the coast, but also
further out in southern Bohuslän with a particularly designated value area below the surface.
Along the coast of Halland there are values for the moving recreation. Claims of national interest
for recreation are also found in the marine spatial planning area at embankments that offer good
opportunities for activities such as recreational fishing and nature experiences. There are wrecks,
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marine archaeological sites and two value areas below the surface with the likely presence of
sunken settlements and islands. The coast of Halland is also of national interest for high-exploited
coast
The marine spatial plan's guidance on energy extraction may entail a risk of negative impact on
cultural heritage, recreation and landscapes, with possible sequential effects on the tourism
industry. In the northern marine spatial planning area, it is mainly about visual impact. Energy
area V359 overlaps with a marine value area for cultural environment and is also close to the
cultural environments on Marstrand with Pater Noster. Energy areas overlap with recreational
boat routes in both Halland and Bohuslän. Offshore wind power can affect the availability and
maritime safety of recreational craft in, for example, energy areas V364 in southern Kattegat and
energy area V359 as well as area V357 that has a permit for a project. The cluster of energy
areas in the southern parts of Skagerrak/Kattegat affects areas of national interest for recreation.
The energy areas that are close to the coast also have a visual impact from land, where people
spend time on beaches, for example. Landscape effects in Skagerrak/Kattegat tend to have
medium-sized effects from energy areas. The coastal areas in Halland are also the areas that
have the greatest impact on recreational boat routes.
Energy extraction, shipping and commercial fishing
The plan proposal for Skagerrak/Kattegat will provide guidance on 9 areas for energy production,
corresponding to an area of approximately 1 060 km2 and approximately 11 percent of the
marine spatial planning area. Energy production is estimated to be approximately 20 TWh per
year. For the marine spatial plan, there are good conditions for energy extraction in terms of wind
and depth conditions. A relatively large proportion of the area consists of energy areas located in
relatively deep areas. Compared to other marine spatial plans, a relatively large proportion of the
energy areas are located within the territorial sea, about 40 percent. The plan's guidance on
energy is available in the municipalities of Tanum, Öckerö, Falkenberg and Halmstad. In some
areas suitable for energy, other uses have been given priority, which may affect energy supply,
affected companies in wind power planning in the plan area negatively. According to the
assignment, Skagerrak/Kattegat is a priority area for marine spatial planning for increased
offshore wind power.
The potential impact on shipping in Skagerrak/Kattegat is assessed to be relatively small, both for
Swedish and international shipping, provided that permits for the establishment of wind farms
take into account existing recommendations and the need for safety distances. The same
assessment also applies to shipping to and from neighbouring countries and international traffic in
the plan area.
The design of energy areas in the plan proposal has to some extent been adapted to take
account of the national interest in commercial fishing and the fishing activity after the consultation.
Overall, the impact on commercial fishing for Skagerrak/Kattegat is considered to have a potential
major impact on the conduct of commercial fishing in the plan area, primarily in the case of
shrimp fishing, as well as bottom trawling for crayfish and fish. There is a high risk of cumulative
effects if all energy areas are established.
Several energy areas with licensed projects have a potentially large negative effect on
commercial fishing. These include, for example, V357 for shrimp fishing and V303, V361 and
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V305 for crayfish fishing. There is considerable uncertainty regarding the impact and possible
loss of landing values. The conditions for the movement of fisheries depend on the type of fishery
and the target species concerned. Where fishing can be relocated, the effect is mainly an
increase in the cost of fishing effort. Norway lobster is an example of a target species linked to
specific sites and habitats, with limited possibilities for the movement of fisheries. Adapted park
layout, buried cables and other solutions for coexistence between commercial fishing and
offshore wind power can affect the conditions for continuing fishing in energy areas and adjacent
areas. Vessels from other countries, mainly Danish and Norwegian, also fish in the plan area,
which may also be affected by the establishment of offshore wind power. Coastal fishing and
creel fishing for Norway lobster, which are mainly conducted closer to the coast, are not
considered to be directly affected by the plan's guidance on energy areas. Potential impact on
commercial fishing is considered to have indirect effects on fishing value chains, the processing
industry, affected landing ports and municipal interests.
Aggregated assessment of energy areas
In the impact assessment above, negative and positive impacts have been assessed on a scale
from 0 to 4. The purpose is to show the risk of impact on the assessment aspect, e.g. birds or
cultural environment. It is a complex task to make an overall assessment for an energy area in
terms of the cumulative impact an energy area has on different assessment aspects and
interests. This is due to several factors, including the degree of detail and quality of the
knowledge base differing between different assessments, as well as the challenge of comparing
widely different types of effects and consequences. At the same time, it is essential that the
impact assessment provides an overall picture. The table below shows all assessments by
energy area in the marine spatial plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat. The table aims to give an
overview and a feeling that some energy areas have a greater risk of negative effects than
others.
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Table 37. Shows all assessments for energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat, and how these can be aggregated and show the total
negative effects of an energy area.
Recreation, Cultural environment
Ecology Sectors and Landscape
Cultural
Benthic Fish and fish Migratory Marine Commercial Outdoor environ
Area habitats spawning Bats bird Bird, wintering mammals Shipping fishing activities ment Landscape
V303
V305
V317
V352
V357
V359
V360
V361
V364
Ö285
Ö287
* Zero alternatives/Authorised.
Assessment scenarios show potential distribution of cumulative effects
In Skagerrak/Kattegat, there are permits to build offshore wind power in four energy areas, some
permits are older, such as V305, and the rest have been awarded in recent times. The marine
spatial plan for Skagerrak/Kattegat provides guidance on four additional energy areas. As
mentioned earlier, there are several uncertainties linked to how the actual expansion will look like
in Skagerrak/Kattegat. To illustrate what an expansion of energy areas could look like, two
scenarios are used, showing potential expansion taking into account different interests. The
‘Nature and culture’ scenario shows a selection of the energy areas identified by the impact
assessment as having the least overall negative impact on natural and cultural heritage values.
The expected energy production would be around: 16 TWh.
In the ‘Nature and Culture’ scenario, only one energy area sites in Skagerrak/Kattegat, V360,
which overlaps with the Natura 2000 Bratten site. All energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat
generally have a major impact on both ecological aspects and cultural environments, and V360 is
the area that archaeological sites in a weighted assessment of these aspects, despite
overlapping with nature conservation. Natura 2000 requires specific permits to establish offshore
wind energy, and it shall be possible to ensure that important nature values are not harmed. As
the zero alternative in Skagerrak/Kattegat entails a relatively large area claim for energy
extraction, the assessment is that further expansion beyond the zero alternative risks affecting
bird migration routes between Denmark and Sweden. Along the Bohuslän and Halland coasts,
there are plenty of national interest claims for both the cultural environment and recreation that
risk being negatively affected by expansion in the more coastal energy areas, see Figure 82
below.
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In the ‘Shipping and commercial fishing’ scenario, the energy areas with the greatest combined
negative impact on fishing and shipping are removed, V359 which directly overlaps with national
interest for commercial fishing and V317 which is in the same area as national interest for
commercial fishing and spawning area. Consequences for shipping in Skagerrak/Kattegat are
primarily about safety and navigation. Skagerrak/Kattegat is a well-trafficed area, and energy
areas included in the zero alternative risk having a negative impact on shipping, see Figure 83
below.
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Figure 82. Displaying the "Nature and Culture" assessment scenario, in this case the energy areas identified by the impact
assessment as having the greatest overall negative impact have been removed. The overall negative impact on the values of
nature and culture will be low.
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Figure 83. If the assessment scenario "Shipping and commercial fishing" is shown, in this case the energy areas identified by
the impact assessment as having the greatest overall negative impact have been removed. The overall negative impact on
values for shipping and fishing will be low.
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Cross-border cumulative effects
Cumulative effects in Skagerrak/Kattegat could mainly occur in relation to the impact on birds,
harbour porpoises, landscapes, cultural environments, recreation, water (hydrography),
commercial fishing and shipping.
The planned energy establishment of neighbouring countries can mainly contribute to particularly
cumulative impacts on birds, harbour porpoises, commercial fisheries, energy and shipping.
Continued dialogue with neighbouring countries is necessary to assess cumulative impacts from
a sea basin perspective.
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Figure 84. Map of proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat and plans for energy expansion in neighbouring countries.
Source: EMODnet, 2022, Flanders Marine Institute, 2023.
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Results and conclusions
This chapter compiles the assessment of the expected environmental effects of the marine spatial
plans for the three marine spatial planning areas of the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and
Skagerrak/Kattegat based on the results reported in the previous chapters. The analyses in this
part are carried out at national level and cover all three marine spatial plans.
Section 6.1 describes the contribution of marine spatial plans to achieving good environmental
status in Swedish waters under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the criteria in the
Water Framework Directive that are related to the marine environment. Section 6.2 includes an
analysis of how the marine spatial plans jointly contribute to achieving Sweden's environmental
quality objectives. The third section presents the implications of marine spatial plans for other
relevant plans, policies and programmes. Apart from the use of energy extraction and the
guidance on particular consideration for high nature values in a number of areas, the guidance in
this proposal for revised marine spatial plans does not differ from agreed marine spatial plans.
Assessment against the Marine Strategy Framework
Directive and the Water Framework Directive
Plankton communities and pelagic environments
Current environmental status
According to the latest assessment of the status of the marine environment (Swedish Agency for
Marine and Water Management, 2023c), good status of pelagic habitats is not achieved in any of
the assessment areas. The indicators for phytoplankton and zooplankton (D1C6, D4C1) meet
their threshold values in individual marine areas, but the eutrophication problem has a negative
impact on the status of plankton communities in the Baltic Sea. Phyto- and zooplankton have also
shown a downward trend in Skagerrak/Kattegat.
Effects of marine spatial plans
In total, marine spatial plans are not considered to have a significant impact on plankton
communities or on pelagic habitats. The overall assessment against relevant MSFD and WFD
descriptors is shown in the table below.
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Table 38. Overall assessment for plankton communities and pelagic habitats. HMD: Marine Environment Directive, RDV: Water
Framework Directive.
Plankton communities and pelagic Gulf of Baltic Sea Skagerrak/Kattegat
habitats Bothnia
D1C6
HMD No effect No effect No effect
State of pelagic habitats
D4C1
HMD Impact on the diversity of the trophic No effect No effect No effect
group
Phytoplankton in coastal and
RDV No effect No effect No effect
transitional waters
Increased turbidity is expected to occur as a result of sand extraction activities and in connection
with the construction of offshore wind power in the areas where the marine spatial plans guide
sand extraction and energy extraction. Although the pressure may be significant locally, it is
generally short-term and geographically limited, and the impact on water quality and marine life is
not significant. In areas where fish spawning occurs, it is important to adapt activities causing
sediment dispersal after spawning periods, in order to minimise the risk of negative impacts on
the pelagic life stages of fish.
The establishment of offshore wind power may impose restrictions on fishing, in particular fishing
with active gear. Limiting bottom trawling can have a local positive effect in terms of reduced
turbidity, especially in areas with bottoms of fine sediments. Similar effects may arise as a result
of guidance from marine spatial plans on particular consideration for high nature values if this
would lead to the introduction of management measures targeting bottom-contact fisheries. The
actual extent of these two effects cannot be ascertained at present.
Model studies show that wind farms can cause changes in currents, stratification and mixing in
the surface of the sea, (Arneborg et al. 2024) see also Section 2.2.1 Water and air. These are
effects that can affect hydrography, biogeochemistry and pelagic ecosystems far beyond the
boundaries of wind farms. One possible consequence of this could be the impact of wind farms
on cyanobacterial blooms in the Baltic Sea. These blooms are an annual phenomenon, especially
in the Baltic Proper, but also in the Bothnian Sea. The blooms are expected to be stronger if the
water temperature rises and the water is stratified. Since these effects of wind farms in terms of
reduced mixing, more stratification and changes in temperature and salinity are unknown, it is
also not possible to fully estimate the effects on phytoplankton, zooplankton and cyanobacteria.
Fish
Current environmental status
Overall, fish descriptors do not reach good environmental status (D1C2, D3C1, D3C2, D4C1)
according to the most recent assessment (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management,
2023c), although individual species perform well. Fishing pressure is the dominant pressure for all
species groups, in addition, the state of fish in Skagerrak/Kattegat is affected by lost ghost fishing
gear, while eutrophication has a negative impact on fish in the Baltic Sea. As regards hazardous
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substances in food (D9C1), good environmental status is achieved in Skagerrak/Kattegat but not
in the Baltic Sea. This is due to elevated levels of dioxins and PCBs in fish in the Baltic Sea.
Effects of marine spatial plans
In total, the marine spatial plans are not considered to have a significant negative effect on fish
within the marine spatial plans areas. However, the effects may vary slightly between different
areas. The overall assessment against relevant MSFD and WFD descriptors is shown in the table
below.
Table 39. Overall assessment for fish. HMD: Marine Environment Directive, RDV: Water Framework Directive. (*) Associated
indicator refers to carp and predatory fish in coastal waters.
Fish Gulf of Baltic Sea Skagerrak/Kattegat
Bothnia
D1C2 Marginal
Marginal negative
HMD Abundance of species of birds, negative No effect
effect
mammals and fish effect
D3C1
HMD Fishing mortality of commercially No effect No effect No effect
exploited species
D3C2 Marginal
Small negative
HMD Spawning stock biomass of negative No effect
impact
commercially exploited species effect
D4C1
HMD Impact on the diversity of trophic No effect No effect No effect
groups
D4C2
HMD Impact on the balance of abundance No effect No effect No effect
between trophic groups
D9C1
HMD No effect No effect No effect
Hazardous substances in marine food
Hiking fish species Small
RDV negative No effect No effect
impact
Bottom fauna in coastal and transitional
RDV No effect No effect No effect
waters
The establishment of offshore wind power can have an impact on fish through turbidity in
spawning grounds and underwater noise. Based on the latest knowledge synthesis (Bergström et
al., 2022), the risk of such negative effects is considered to be avoidable by taking into account
spawning times. However, it is important that the risk of impact is examined in each area, taking
into account the sensitivity of the fish species and other local conditions.
Increased turbidity in connection with sand extraction and the construction and decommissioning
of offshore wind power may have a negative impact on fish spawning, but the risk of such impact
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is considered to be minimised to acceptable levels by taking into account measures for each
activity, including adjusting the construction time if necessary to avoid spawning periods. The
greatest overlap is found between energy area V317 in the national interest area professional
fishing for spawning and nursery areas.
The risk of impact on migratory salmon is estimated to be greater in coastal shallower sea areas.
Energy areas B108, B111, B142, B149 and B152 are considered to have little risk of negatively
affecting the conditions for migratory salmon in the Gulf of Bothnia and energy area V303, V364
in Skagerrak/Kattegat.
The marine spatial plans’ guidance on particular consideration for high nature values may lead to
the introduction of adaptation measures for various human activities in order to reduce pressure
on marine life. There is thus potential that the guidance indirectly contributes to increased
protection of fish species. Similarly, the establishment of offshore wind power may impose
restrictions on fishing activities, which may benefit fish stocks over time. The greatest
prerequisites for such positive effects are found in Skagerrak/Kattegat, but the extent is not
possible to estimate based on current knowledge.
The marginally longer mileage for shipping through the Southern Bothnian Sea as a result of the
marine spatial plans’ guidance on energy extraction is expected to lead to marginally increased
underwater noise and marginally higher levels of pollutants from operational emissions. These
pressures are considered to have a marginal negative effect on pelagic fish species. Adaptation
of fisheries and also shipping to energy areas elsewhere may have similar effects, but these
cannot be predicted at present.
On the other hand, re-routing of shipping in the two investigation areas Salvorev and Hoburg
Bank in the northern and south-eastern Baltic Seas is considered to have little positive impact on
marine life, including fish.
Seabirds
Current environmental status
The environmental status of nesting and wintering seabirds varies between both species groups
and sea areas (D1C2, D4C1). For example, good environmental status is achieved for breeding
birds in the species groups surface foraging and pelagic foraging, but not for benthic foraging. For
the species group wintering birds, good environmental status is reached for benthic foraging in
Skagerrak/Kattegat and for pelagic foraging in the Baltic Sea. The pressures affecting seabirds
vary between species groups, but by-catch in fisheries, direct disturbance by human pressure,
and hazardous substances are the pressures considered to have the greatest impact (Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2023c).
Effects of marine spatial plans
The plan proposal is considered to entail a medium risk of negative effects on birds. The overall
assessment against the relevant MSFD descriptors is shown in the table below.
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Table 40. Overall assessment for birds. HMD: Marine Environment Directive, RDV: Water Framework Directive.
Bird Gulf of Baltic Sea Skagerrak/Kattegat
Bothnia
Medium
D1C2 Medium negative
HMD negative No effect
Impact on population impact
impact
D4C1 Medium
Medium negative
HMD Impact on the diversity of the trophic negative No effect
impact
group impact
No No
RDV No relevant basis of assessment No assessment
assessment assessment
Several energy areas are located in the vicinity of migratory corridors used by large numbers of
individuals of different bird species. Several of these bird migration routes are of global
importance. Energy areas in so-called bottlenecks pose particularly high risks, not only for
seabirds, but also for land birds and bats seeking the shortest possible passage across the sea.
The marine spatial plan also provides guidance on energy extraction in or adjacent to wintering
areas for bird species worthy of protection, as is the case for the offshore embankments of the
Southern Bothnian Sea and southern Kattegat. In addition to these, a few energy areas close to
the coast are proposed, posing a particular risk to birds breeding, feeding or stretching along the
coast.
In a number of other energy areas, the risk of impact on birds is considered to be low. Usually
these are areas at greater depths further out to sea and at greater distances from migratory
routes.
In some areas, it is considered that the risk of adverse effects on birds can be minimised by
adapting the operation of wind farms to the wind and weather conditions or the presence of birds.
Special risk of cumulative adverse effects on birds exists for areas B149, B152, B156, they have
therefore been designated as investigation areas. The risk of impacts from offshore wind should
be seen in the context of the downward trend of several seabird populations, as well as in the
context of the surge of offshore wind energy in many areas and also many other countries that
concern the same bird population.
Marine mammals
Current environmental status
None of the three harbour porpoise populations achieves good status according to the latest
assessment (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2023c). The main pressure on
harbour porpoises is by-catch by fishing, mainly fishing with nets but also pelagic trawling. For the
Belt Sea population, the annual by-catch exceeded the threshold for the indicator (D1C1) ten
times and for Skagerrak/Kattegat population four times over the assessment period. As the Baltic
Sea population is classified as endangered according to the Swedish Red List, the threshold for
by-catch has been set at zero individuals, which has also been exceeded during the assessment
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period. Skagerrak/Kattegat population meets the population size threshold (D1C2), but neither
the Baltic Sea population nor the Belt Sea population.
None of the three seal species or their populations achieve good status in their respective
assessment areas. This is partly due to the fact that population growth, a parameter included in
indicator D1C2, has slowed compared to the previous assessment period. Gestation frequency
and thickness of blubber (included in indicator D1C3) are only assessed for grey seals, but do not
meet their threshold values. In terms of distribution (D1C4), none of the seal species or
populations achieve good status. The pressures that have the greatest direct impact on the
condition of seals are the by-catch and hunting of fisheries.
Effects of marine spatial plans
In total, marine spatial plans are assessed to have mixed effects on marine mammals. Some
negative effects mainly concern harbour porpoises in Skagerrak/Kattegat and seals in the Gulf of
Bothnia. Guidance on particular consideration for high nature values can have a small positive
effect. The impact on seals is not considered significant. The overall assessment against the
relevant MSFD descriptors is shown in the table below.
Table 41. Overall assessment for marine mammals. HMD: Marine Environment Directive, RDV: Water Framework Directive. (*)
Associated indicator concerns by-catch of harbour porpoises; (**) Related indicators relate to the gestation rate and the blubber
thickness of grey seals; (***) Related indicators relate to the distribution of grey seals, harbour seals and ringed seals; (****)
Associated indicators refer to abundance and trends of grey, harbour and ringed seals).
Marine mammals Gulf of Baltic Sea Skagerrak/Kattegat
Bothnia
D1C1*
HMD No effect No effect No effect
Mortality due to by-catch
Medium
D1C2 Medium negative
HMD negative No effect
Impact on population impact
impact
D1C3**
HMD Demographic characteristics of the No effect No effect No effect
population
D1C4***
HMD No effect No effect No effect
Species distribution
D4C1****
HMD Impact on the diversity of the trophic No effect No effect No effect
group
No No
RDV No relevant basis of assessment No assessment
assessment assessment
The positive effects related to descriptor D1C1 are due to reduced mortality in by-catch or
physical disturbance from fishing and defence activities in areas where the marine spatial plan
gives particular consideration to high nature values. The effect is assumed to be slightly greater
for harbour porpoises than for seals. Assumptions made for these areas concern the application
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of by-catch minimisation methods and gear in trawl and gillnet fisheries, as well as greater
adaptation of defence exercises during biologically sensitive periods for mammals.
Consideration can also be given to establishing offshore wind power so that the risk of negative
impact on most marine mammal populations can be kept within acceptable levels.
Furthermore, the guidance provided by the marine spatial plans is not considered to make any
difference for factors affecting the abundance or distribution of seals.
Benthic habitats
Current environmental status
The integrity of the seabed in Swedish marine areas is not considered to achieve good
environmental status in a number of assessment areas. The results vary between different habitat
types, but generally it can be said that the status is better in the sea areas that are part of the Gulf
of Bothnia (Åland Sea, Bothnian Sea, North Kvarken, Bothnian Bay), compared to the Baltic Sea
and Skagerrak/Kattegat. The main contributing factor to physical disturbance in the lake is bottom
trawling, but oxygen deficiency due to eutrophication also affects the status of benthic habitats
(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2024a).
Effects of marine spatial plans
The overall impact on benthic habitats is assessed as small positive. The overall assessment
against the relevant MSFD descriptors is shown in the table below.
Table 42. Overall assessment for benthic habitats. HMD: Marine Environment Directive, RDV: Water Framework Directive. (*)
Relevant indicators include bottom fauna in coastal waters (5.8A) and bottom fauna in offshore waters (5.8B).
Benthic habitats Gulf of Baltic Sea Skagerrak/Kattegat
Bothnia
Potential for both
D6C3 Marginal
negative and
HMD Extent of physical disturbance in negative No effect
positive local
benthic habitats effect
impacts
D6C5* Marginal Potential for both
HMD Extent of adverse effects of human negative No effect negative and
pressures effect positive local impact
Morphological status of coastal and
RDV No effect No effect No effect
transitional waters
Macroalgae and angiosperms in coastal
RDV No effect No effect No effect
waters
The establishment of wind power has a permanent local impact on the seabed. Wind energy
foundations and erosion protection can at the same time contribute to new habitats for certain
bottom-dwelling organisms. The seabed area covered by foundations and erosion protection
generally amounts to less than one percent of the total area of a wind farm. In cases where
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energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat replace bottom trawling as a use, positive net local effects
may arise from a bottom pressure perspective. The effect is positive if fishing is concentrated in
areas outside the energy areas as the total bottom-pressured area is likely to decrease.
Moving the marine routes to deeper waters in the Southern Bothnian Sea and in connection with
the distribution areas in the Baltic Sea may also lead to a slightly reduced impact on shallower
benthic habitats according to the modelling in the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management (2019a).
Locally significant negative effects are expected to occur in the proposed sand extraction areas in
the Bothnian Bay, as well as in the southwestern and southern Baltic Seas. The areas are located
below the photic zone, and the extraction activity is not considered to have any negative effects
on bottom-dwelling plants. The effects on benthic fauna, on the other hand, are considered to be
very negative due to the withdrawal of large amounts of sediment and the re-sedimentation of
stirred sediment in the immediate area. Despite large local negative effects on benthic habitats,
the effects of sand extraction activities are geographically limited, and very small in relation to the
area of sandbanks in the marine spatial planning areas. However, there is a risk of permanent
physical disturbance, which could contravene EQS D.1 and D.3. The risk needs to be further
investigated within the framework of permit procedures.
The impact on protected bottom types needs to be further investigated in the context of permit
assessment processes in order to avoid harm.
Hydrographic conditions
Current environmental status
At present, there are no nationally agreed indicators with threshold values for assessing
hydrographic conditions. However, a qualitative assessment indicates that current large-scale
infrastructure does not result in any significant impact in Swedish offshore waters (Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2023).
Effects of marine spatial plans
In total, the marine spatial plans are expected to lead to an increased risk of some negative effect
on hydrographic conditions within the plan area. The magnitude of the effect is uncertain. The
overall assessment against the relevant MSFD descriptors is shown in the table below.
Table 43. Overall assessment for hydrographic conditions. HMD: Marine Environment Directive, RDV: Water Framework
Directive.
Hydrographic conditions Gulf of Baltic Sea Skagerrak/Kattegat
Bothnia
D7 Risk of some
Risk of some
HMD Persistent changes in hydrographic negative No effect
negative impact
conditions impact
Hydromorphological quality elements in Risk of some
Risk of some
RDV coastal and transitional waters negative No effect
negative impact
• Connectivity impact
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• Hydrographic conditions
Physicochemical quality elements in
coastal and transitional waters
• Depth of vision Risk of some
Risk of some
RDV • Nutrients negative No effect
negative impact
• Oxygen balance impact
• Particularly polluting
substances
The establishment of offshore wind energy according to the marine spatial plans’ guidance on
energy extraction could entail the risk of regional changes in hydrographic conditions in all three
marine spatial plans. Preliminary results of modelling studies in Swedish waters indicate possible
changes in wind and current conditions, with consequences for stratification, temperature and
salinity in the sea and coastal zone. The magnitude of this effect and consequential effects for
physicochemical conditions are currently unclear. The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management has commissioned SMHI to study hydrographic effects linked to offshore wind
power. The results show that large-scale expansion of offshore wind power can lead to sequential
effects in the marine environment due to reduced winds behind the wind turbines, which in turn
leads to reduced vertical mixing of the water. In the Baltic Sea, this could lead to a shallower
halocline, as well as increased salinity and temperatures in the deep water (Arneborg et al.,
2024). See Section 2.3.1.
Underwater noise
Current environmental status
Good environmental status is reached for impulsive underwater sounds in Skagerrak, Kattegat,
the Bothnian Sea, North Kvarken and the Bothnian Bay. Impulsive sound sources include, for
example, underwater explosions, construction works, sonars and sonars used by the military, as
well as acoustic scares for seals used in commercial fishing. For continuous underwater noise,
good environmental status is reached only in the Bothnian Sea, North Kvarken and Bothnian Bay.
In these three sea basins, shipping is less intense than in other sea basins, which is the dominant
source of continuous noise in Swedish sea areas (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management, 2023c).
Effects of marine spatial plans
In total, marine spatial plans are estimated to have a marginal negative effect on underwater
noise within marine spatial plans. The overall assessment against the relevant MSFD descriptors
is shown in the table below.
Table 44. Overall assessment for underwater noise. HMD: Marine Environment Directive, RDV: Water Framework Directive.
Underwater noise D11 Gulf of Baltic Skagerrak/Kattegat
Bothnia
Small
Small negative
HMD Impulsive underwater noise D11C1 negative No effect
impact
impact
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Small
Small negative
Continuous underwater noise D11C2 negative No effect
impact
impact
No No
RDV No relevant basis of assessment No assessment
assessment assessment
Assumptions of reduced impact from fishing and defence activities in areas where marine spatial
plans provide guidance on particular consideration for high nature values are considered to lead
to reduced underwater noise in these areas. The possible transfer of the shipping route south of
Gotland to deeper waters is also expected to reduce the noise level from shipping locally.
Wind power expansion is expected to increase underwater noise in a number of areas. Wind
turbines generate both impulsive noise during the construction phase and continuous noise
during the operation phase. There are currently uncertainties in estimating the impact of both
impulsive noise and continuous noise, as there are no plants in operation in the size planned for.
The basis that exists consists of sound modelling. Research projects are ongoing to investigate
the noise impact of large offshore wind farms (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2024).
The effects of impulsive underwater noise are serious because high noise levels can damage
marine organisms and lead to behavioural change, hearing damage and death as a result of
excessive exposure. However, impulsive noise is transient and affects the marine environment for
a limited time. The effects of continuous noise during the operational phase are less severe,
although there are some uncertainties linked to cumulative pressures.
With noise abatement measures and other local consideration measures, it is possible to limit the
input of impulsive noise during construction and decommissioning of wind farms. There are still
uncertainties regarding direct applicability. Precise consideration measures and conditions need
to be specified for each area within the framework of the permit assessment. The extensive
deployment of offshore wind power according to the guidance provided by the marine spatial
plans is considered to lead to a change in soundscape in several areas even during the
operational phase, with an average higher noise level. Knowledge of long-term biological and
ecological effects of an elevated noise level for marine ecosystems and organisms is currently
inadequate, there are also no studies for cumulative noise effects from several wind farms.
Alien species
The environmental status of non-indigenous species is based on the number of registered new
non-indigenous species, good environmental status is achieved neither in Skagerrak/Kattegat nor
in the Baltic Sea as new species have been introduced in both sea basins during the 2016-2021
assessment period. Sources of dispersal of non-indigenous species are vessel traffic, either from
ballast water or fouling on ship hulls, as well as through aquaculture and regional stock
movements (Sea and Water Authority, 2023). Offshore wind energy has the potential to
contribute to the spread of alien species by acting as ‘stepping stones’ (Bergström et al., 2022).
This means that the hard substrates offer suitable habitats for alien organisms that can establish
themselves more quickly with the help of the habitats.
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Table 45. Overall assessment for non-indigenous species.
Alien species D2 Gulf of Bothnia Baltic Skagerrak/Kattegat
Risk of some
HMD Introduction of alien species D2C1 No assessment No effect
negative impact
Other effects
The marine spatial plans are not considered to have significant effects on MSFD descriptors, D5
– eutrophication, D8 – concentration and effects of hazardous substances and D10 – marine
litter.
Fulfilment of Sweden's environmental quality objectives
This section presents the analysis of how the proposed revised marine spatial plans can
contribute to the achievement of Sweden’s environmental objectives. The results are summarised
in the table below and described in text below for the five objectives to which the marine spatial
plans are considered to contribute.
Table 46. Summary of the contribution of marine spatial plans to the achievement of Sweden's environmental objectives.
Environmental objectives The possibility for the marine spatial plan to have an impact
By guiding on suitable areas for the extraction of fossil-free
Limited climate impact
energy.
By guiding on suitable areas for renewable energy extraction.
Fresh air By guiding on the spatial distribution of boat and ship traffic and
associated air emissions in relation to communities and nature.
Only natural acidification No impact.
By guiding on the spatial distribution of activities that affect the
Non-toxic environment sea, for example when civil works risk releasing environmental
toxins.
Protective ozone layer No impact.
Safe radiation environment No impact.
No eutrophication No impact.
Live lakes and streams No impact.
Good quality groundwater No impact.
By guiding on the precedence and spatial distribution of activities
Sea in balance and living coast
affecting fish and shellfish stocks, and the general ecological
and archipelago
status of coastal waters.
Flooding wetlands No impact.
Living forest No impact.
A rich agricultural landscape No impact.
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Environmental objectives The possibility for the marine spatial plan to have an impact
Magnificent mountain
No impact.
environment
Because the landscape can be affected by wind power
Good built environment
installations.
By guiding on the primacy and spatial distribution of areas for
nature conservation, and of activities that affect the conservation
Rich plant and animal life
status of different habitat types and species, and the accessibility
of man-made natural and cultural environments.
With regard to the ‘Limited climate impact’ objective, the contributions of marine spatial plans
relate primarily to climate-impacting emissions. The marine spatial plans are expected to have a
positive effect by creating better conditions for a significantly increased establishment of offshore
wind power in the Swedish territorial sea and Swedish exclusive economic zone. The guidance
on energy extraction is considered to be able to facilitate permit-granting processes and thereby
increase the rate of offshore renewable energy extraction. To the extent that electricity production
from offshore wind power replaces fossil-based energy sources, the marine spatial plans are
considered to be able to contribute to reducing Sweden’s greenhouse gas emissions.
By guiding on suitable areas for renewable energy extraction, marine spatial plans are assessed
to contribute to fossil-free energy for the industrial and transport transition and the reduction of air
pollution from these sectors. Marine spatial plans have a small or marginally negative contribution
to the objective of ‘Fresh air’, mainly with regard to levels of harmful air pollutants. The marine
spatial plans do not affect which fuels are used in maritime transport, which is the maritime
industry that emits the most air pollutants. The guidance on sand extraction as the most
appropriate use is considered to contribute to marginally increased emissions in the coastal areas
concerned. A corresponding assessment is made of the effects of increased emissions from ship
traffic in connection with the construction, operation and decommissioning of offshore wind
power. The marine spatial plan is not expected to have a net effect on emissions from fishing
boats, despite the fact that the establishment of wind power may lead to changes in fishing
operations. At the same time, the establishment of wind power can contribute to less air
emissions by replacing fossil-free energy with fossil-based energy, which makes a positive
contribution to the target.
The environmental quality objective Non-toxic environment is affected by the fact that the marine
spatial plans' guidance on the development of sand extraction activities can contribute to an
increased risk that environmental toxins are released from the sediment and absorbed by marine
organisms, the same applies to piling and construction work for offshore wind power. However,
there is currently no evidence that the areas in question have elevated levels of environmental
toxins, which is why the risk is considered marginal. Increased small and service boat traffic in
connection with guidance on priority use recreation, energy extraction and sand extraction entails
a higher risk of operational emissions that affect the environment locally. However, the extent of
this effect is difficult to estimate.
The marine spatial plans’ contribution to the objective ‘Sea in balance and living coasts and
archipelagos’ concerns the conservation of natural and cultural heritage values, the promotion of
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sustainable use and the protection of valuable areas. The proposed energy areas entail an
increased risk of disturbance of valuable and in some cases endangered species and habitats in
several areas.
At the same time, through guidance on particular consideration for high nature values, the marine
spatial plan opens up the possibility of increased protection of habitats and species in significantly
more and larger areas. Restrictions on fishing within wind farms, for example, may in some cases
also cause less disturbance to marine species. It is also positive that nature use confirms all
existing and planned protected areas, national interest claims for nature conservation and fish
spawning areas. Guidance on particular consideration for high nature values draws attention to
the importance of specific areas for biodiversity, ecosystem integrity and climate change
adaptation, which may be the basis for future protection of habitats or species.
Some guidance in marine spatial plans may have an impact on the environmental quality
objective ‘Good built environment’. Marine spatial plans provide guidance on the protection of
valuable cultural and recreational environments at sea, promoting access to nature and culture.
The proposal for a marine spatial plan is considered to entail a risk of negative effects in several
coastal landscapes, areas for recreation and cultural environments.
Finally, the contribution of marine spatial plans to the environmental quality objective A rich flora
and fauna refers to the conservation and use of biodiversity, the conservation of habitats and
ecosystems, viable populations, and access to nature and cultural environments. The marine
spatial plans guide the deployment of offshore wind energy and sand extraction activities, which
pose both biodiversity risks of importance from the local to the international level. At the same
time, the plans provide guidance on the protection of specific valuable areas as well as on
adaptation needs for maritime activities aimed at preserving biodiversity and ecosystem integrity.
Such adaptations may be important for the conservation and recovery of stocks of commercial
fish and shellfish species, as well as species affected by by-catch or other disturbance.
Assessment against other plans, policies and
programmes
According to the Marine Spatial Planning Regulation, proposals for marine spatial plans must be
designed in such a way that the plan integrates industrial policy, social and environmental
objectives. Within the framework of marine spatial planning, ten planning objectives have been
developed to support this integration of policy areas. Overall objectives are good marine
environment and sustainable development, as well as a number of thematic and sectoral sub-
objectives. All targets relate differently to national policies and strategies. The starting point for
the assessment of the plan proposal is therefore based on the planning objectives, set in relation
to the national strategy for sustainable regional development throughout the country 2021 - 2030
(Government, 2021b).
Regional development policy is part of Sweden's implementation of the Sustainable Development
Goals Agenda 2030. The 2030 Agenda’s goals and targets are integrated and indivisible and
cover all three dimensions of sustainable development: economic, social and environmental. The
goal of regional development policy is developmental power with strengthened local and regional
competitiveness for sustainable development in all parts of the country. The strategy for regional
development states that the policy should promote a better environment, reduce climate impact
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and promote energy transition. In addition, the policy will promote sustainable structural change
and the development of the business sector. Regional development policy shall promote the
conditions for conducting long-term sustainable development work and contribute to ensuring that
Sweden has no net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2045. All policy areas are relevant for
achieving the objectives set out in the strategy (Government, 2021b).
The table below shows how the marine spatial plans are considered to contribute to priorities in
the national strategy for regional development. The table also analyses in an overall way how this
relates to national interests and the impact of marine spatial plans on national interests and
various types of policy documents.
National interests are geographical areas that have been identified as nationally significant.
Proposals for marine spatial plans shall be compatible with provisions for the management of
land and water areas and national interests under Chapters 3 and 4 of the Environmental Code.
The marine spatial plan's guidance is based on planning data and various national interests and
trade-offs between them. When balancing interests, coexistence shall be sought and in the event
of conflicting interests, it shall be planned and ensured that national interests are not significantly
impaired or harmed.
Table 47. The impact of marine spatial plans on national strategy priorities for regional development, related to marine spatial
planning objectives and governance documents.
The possibility for the
National strategy Marine spatial plans’
marine spatial plan to
for regional Marine spatial National interests and guidance in relation
influence and
development – planning objectives policy documents to national interest
contribute to the
priority claims
strategy
Equal Create the conditions By guiding on areas of National interests under The marine spatial
opportunities for for: use nature, recreation Chapter 3 of the plans' guidance on the
housing, work • Regional and cultural Environmental Code: use of recreation and
and welfare development, environment, as well as • Outdoor activities cultural environment
throughout the outdoor activities consideration and • Conservation of and particular
country and preservation adaptation for natural cultural heritage consideration for high
- High quality of of cultural values and cultural landscapes, • Nature conservation cultural values
life with good • Marine green the marine spatial plan promotes recreation
and attractive infrastructure and affects the strategy's Examples related policy and cultural
habitats promotion of priority related to documents environmental values
ecosystem promoting natural and Cultural policy objectives along the coast, but
services cultural landscapes, - Recreational also within the marine
living in nature, the right objectives spatial plan areas.
of public access and - Public health policy Values can be
recreation. objectives affected by marine
- Species and Habitats uses, in particular
According to the Directive energy extraction, to
strategy, green and blue - Marine strategy varying degrees
surfaces also contribute (Follow-up, indicator depending on location
to improved public 8, 9) and design. The
health and quality of life. impact and need for
adaptation to promote
coexistence need to
be assessed from a
regional and local
perspective.
Equal Create the conditions Through the plan’s National interests under The marine spatial
opportunities for for: guidance on energy Chapter 3 of the plans provide
housing, work • Regional areas, as well as the use Environmental Code: guidance on energy
and welfare development, of nature and particular • Installations for the extraction for more
throughout the outdoor activities consideration for high production and extensive areas than
country and preservation nature values, the distribution of today's national
- Good urban of cultural values marine spatial plan electricity interest in energy
planning • Energy affects the strategy’s • Nature conservation production. The
transmission and priority of promoting a Examples of related guidance on nature
renewable energy social structure that policy documents: use and particular
extraction in the contributes to - Energy policy consideration for high
oceans sustainable habitats, objectives nature values is more
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The possibility for the
National strategy Marine spatial plans’
marine spatial plan to
for regional Marine spatial National interests and guidance in relation
influence and
development – planning objectives policy documents to national interest
contribute to the
priority claims
strategy
• Marine green reduced climate impact, - Biodiversity Strategy extensive than areas
infrastructure and as well as the - EU renewable energy of national interest for
promotion of conservation of strategy nature conservation.
ecosystem biodiversity and - EU Blue Economy
services ecosystem services in a Strategy The impact between
changing climate. - EU Strategy for the these uses is
Baltic Sea Region described in the
- Maritime strategy previous section and
(Follow-up, indicator environmental
3, 8, 9, 16) description.
Equal Create the conditions Affects prioritization by National interests under Open national interest
opportunities for for: ensuring that the Chapter 3 of the claims for defence are
housing, work • Regional interests of defence are Environmental Code: specified as use
and welfare development, taken into account. • Defence defence in marine
throughout the outdoor activities Examples related policy spatial plans.
country and preservation documents Particular
- Good urban of cultural values - Security policy consideration shall be
planning • Defence and objectives given to the interests
security of defence in certain
areas of energy
production. Further
adjustments have also
been made based on
the interests of the
defence.
Innovation and Create the conditions The plan's guidance on National interests in The marine spatial
renewal as well for: energy contributes to the accordance with plans provide
as • Regional strategy's priority on the Chapter 3, Section 4 of guidance on energy
entrepreneurshi development, deployment, production the Environmental Code: extraction for more
p and outdoor activities and use of renewable • Installations for the extensive areas than
entrepreneurshi and preservation energy, which is production and today's national
p across the of cultural values important for regional distribution of interest in energy
country • Energy energy supply and electricity production. However,
– A competitive, transmission and sustainable regional Related policy several areas
circular and bio- renewable energy development. documents: considered to be
based, climate extraction in the - Energy policy public interests of
and oceans It is unclear how the objectives substantial importance
environmental Prepare for: plan’s guidance on sand - EU renewable energy for energy extraction
sustainable • Mining and extraction affects the strategy are listed as any other
economy storage of carbon strategy’s priorities. - EU Blue Economy use on the basis of
dioxide Strategy incompatible interests.
- EU Strategy for the
Baltic Sea Region
- Maritime strategy
(Follow-up, indicator
16)
Innovation and Create the conditions Through the plan’s National interests in The marine spatial
renewal as well for: guidance on the use of accordance with plans’ guidance on
as • Regional commercial fisheries, Chapter 3, Section 4 of energy extraction has
entrepreneurshi development, including consideration the Environmental Code: a negative impact on
p and outdoor activities guidance, the plan also • Commercial fishing commercial fishing by
entrepreneurshi and preservation impacts prioritisation on Related policy limiting fishing
p across the of cultural values a competitive, circular documents: opportunities,
country • Sustainable and bio-based, climate- - Fisheries of the future including in areas of
– A competitive, commercial sustainable economy. - EU Common national interest.
circular and bio- fishing In the case of Fisheries Policy Guidance on nature
based, climate aquaculture, the plan - EU Blue Economy use and particular
and Prepare for: does not yet provide Strategy consideration for high
environmental • Future guidance on this. - EU Strategy for the nature values,
sustainable establishment of Baltic Sea Region possibly including
economy sustainable - Maritime strategy energy areas, can
aquaculture (Follow-up, indicator have positive effects
3, 17, 18) on the fish resource,
thereby favouring
sustainable fishing in
the longer term.
Accessibility Create the conditions The plan's guidance on National interests under The marine spatial
throughout the for: shipping affects the Chapter 3 of the plans provide
country through prioritisation based on Environmental Code: guidance on the use of
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The possibility for the
National strategy Marine spatial plans’
marine spatial plan to
for regional Marine spatial National interests and guidance in relation
influence and
development – planning objectives policy documents to national interest
contribute to the
priority claims
strategy
digital • Sustainable maritime transport • Shipping shipping for most
communication shipping supply, significant for areas of national
and the • Create conditions people and business Related strategies: interest for shipping,
transport system for good across the country. - Transport policy or that the function of
– Accessibility accessibility Prioritisation also objectives the claim can be met
through highlights the - Regional plans in the immediate area.
sustainable importance of - EU Strategy for the Areas with energy
transport coordination between Baltic Sea Region extraction have a
systems activities and transport - Maritime strategy potential impact of
infrastructure at local, (Follow-up, indicator varying degrees on
regional and national 10, 14, 15) shipping. The need for
level. site-specific
adaptations to
promote coexistence
with shipping is
assessed for each
energy area in the
permit process.
Assessment of the impact of the marine spatial plan on
ecosystem services
Ecosystem services are the functions and processes in nature that benefit human interests.
These services are divided into supportive, regulatory, supportive and cultural. The following is
based on data produced by WSP (Paulsson et al., 2024) on behalf of the Swedish Agency for
Marine and Water Management. Assessment of the impact on ecosystem services is only done
for the Gulf of Bothnia and Skagerrak/Kattegat, as the differences in the Baltic Sea are small
compared to the already adopted marine spatial plan from 2022.
Supportive ecosystem services
Supportive ecosystem services are about the basic conditions for other ecosystem services to
function and thus have an indirect function. Increased expansion of energy production can have
both positive and negative impacts on supporting ecosystem services related to habitats,
biodiversity and population regulation. Which ecosystem services are affected and to what extent
depends on whether the wind turbines are built, operated or decommissioned, and whether
protective measures are taken. Impacts can take the form of noise, turbidity, bottom impact and
the creation of artificial reefs. Marine spatial planning areas have different conditions through
which the impact level shifts. For example, the Gulf of Bothnia is more sensitive to changes as
the area has a lower biodiversity than Skagerrak/Kattegat. The higher degree of biodiversity in
Skagerrak/Kattegat entails a greater risk of negative bottom impact and where a higher degree of
bottom trawling already constitutes an impact. Provided that fishing is not moved to new areas,
the energy areas could thus have a positive effect on benthic habitats. The plan is indicative and
areas where consideration is to be given to natural and cultural environments do not provide
formal protection but can be assumed to have positive but small effects on habitats and diversity.
Regulating ecosystem services
Regulating ecosystem services regulate and maintain the functions of ecosystems. Offshore wind
power can generate negative as well as positive effects. The impact occurs through the physical
structure of the wind turbines and by contributing with renewable electricity production, where the
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size of the effect depends on which energy sources are replaced. Energy extraction has a
positive effect by contributing to fossil-free electricity production and thereby reducing the
pressure on the climate-regulating ecosystem services that absorb carbon dioxide through carbon
sequestration. Furthermore, the physical structure of wind turbines can attract marine species
that contribute to carbon sequestration. As there is a risk that these species may be invasive, it
could also have a negative effect on the regulation of biological conditions. Negative impact could
also come from the increased emissions that can be expected from the transport that construction
and maintenance of the wind farms generate. However, this depends on how the development of
fuel in this type of transport will look like. Areas where nature is to be taken into account are
expected to have small but positive effects on regulatory ecosystem services.
Supplying ecosystem services
Sufficient ecosystem services provide human beings with food and materials. In
Skagerrak/Kattegat, it is reasonable to assume that ecosystem services relevant for commercial
and recreational fishing are adversely affected to a greater extent than in the Gulf of Bothnia. This
is due to the fact that the fishing carried out in the area is more extensive and more difficult to
coexist with the wind farms.
Cultural ecosystem services
Cultural ecosystem services are services that enable well-being. The ecosystem service can be
different qualities in the environment that generate experience values, for example in the form of
recreation, spirituality or knowledge building. When it comes to the effects of wind power on
cultural ecosystem services, it is primarily the visual impression that affects. However, since the
experience is subjective, it is difficult to assess whether it is a positive or negative effect because
different people have different perceptions. The plan is indicative and areas where consideration
is to be given to natural and cultural environments do not provide formal protection but can be
assumed to have positive effects on cultural ecosystem services.
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Gulf of Bothnia
Table 48. Shows an overview of how the guidance in the marine spatial plan affects ecosystem services.
Ecosystem service Impact on ecosystem The benefits of the Other uses/ Interests
services through the ecosystem service particular Affected by
use of Energy for human interests consideration that Changing
may affect the Ecosystem
ecosystem service Services
Supporting Small positive A prerequisite for the Positive Recreation
Restricted fishing leads functioning of other Nature
Provision of habitats, species to stronger stocks in ecosystem services n-areas Commercial
diversity and genetic the long term Cultural environment fishing
diversity K Areas
New habitats;
Regulation of populations by Negative
predators or predators Small negative Sand extraction
Bottom impact, turbidity Commercial fishing
and noise
Impact on marine
mammals, birds and
bats
Regulatory Medium positive Reducing the impact of Positive Recreation
Reduced load on climate change. Nature
Carbon sequestration carbon sequestration n-areas Commercial
Balanced ecosystems fishing
Regulation of Pests and Pest Small positive Negative
Plants New habitats Contribution to Sand extraction
providing ecosystem Commercial fishing
Maintenance of nurseries Medium negative services
and nursery environments Bottom impact, turbidity
and noise
Filtering of microorganisms,
algae, plants and animals Small negative
Risk of favouring
invasive species
Sufficient Small negative Food for sale or Positive Recreation
Possibility of fishing household needs Recreation
Food from wild animals restricted Commercial fishing Commercial
fishing
Wild animals for direct use or Negative
processing Recreation
Commercial fishing
Cultural Small positive Well-being Positive Recreation
Recreational fishing Nature
provision of endangered Knowledge building n-areas
species, habitats and Wind turbines can be Cultural environment
ecosystem processes; viewed positively. K Areas
attractive recreational
environments; areas with Artificial reefs that
varied wildlife and interesting create learning
vegetation; areas of scientific environments
interest and learning
Medium negative
Visual impact.
Small negative
Opportunities for
recreation
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Skagerrak/Kattegat
Table 49. Shows an overview of how the guidance in the marine spatial plan affects ecosystem services.
Ecosystem service Impact on ecosystem The benefits of the Other uses/ Interests
services through the ecosystem service particular Affected by
use of Energy for human interests consideration that Changing
may affect the Ecosystem
ecosystem service Services
Supporting Medium positive A prerequisite for Positive Recreation
New habitats; other EST function Nature
Provision of habitats, species n-areas Commercial
diversity and genetic diversity Small positive K Areas fishing
Restricted fishing leads
Regulation of populations by to stronger stocks in
predators or predators the long term
Medium negative
Impact on marine
mammals, birds and
bats
Bottom impact, turbidity
and noise
Regulatory Small positive Reducing the impact Positive Recreation
Reduced pressure on of climate change Nature
Carbon sequestration carbon sequestration n-areas Commercial
Balanced ecosystems fishing
Regulation of New habitats Negative
pests Contribution to Commercial fishing
and harmful plants Medium negative providing ecosystem
Bottom impact, turbidity services
Maintenance of nurseries and and noise
nursery environments
Small negative
Filtration of micro-organisms; Risk of favouring
algae, plants and animals invasive species
Sufficient Medium negative Food for sale or Positive Recreation
Possibility of fishing household needs Recreation
Food from wild animals restricted Commercial fishing Commercial
fishing
Wild animals for direct use or Negative
processing Recreation
Commercial fishing
Cultural Small positive Well-being Positive Recreation
Recreational fishing Nature
provision of endangered Knowledge building n-areas
species, habitats and Wind turbines can be K Areas
ecosystem processes; viewed positively.
attractive recreational
environments; areas with Artificial reefs that
varied wildlife and interesting create learning
vegetation; areas of scientific environments
interest and learning
Medium negative
Visual impact.
Opportunities for
recreation
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Measures, follow-up and monitoring
Under Chapter 6, Section 11 (5 and 7) of the Environmental Code, an environmental impact
assessment must contain information on the measures planned to prevent, deter, counteract or
remedy significant adverse environmental effects, as well as an account of the measures planned
to follow-up and monitor the significant environmental effects that the implementation of the plan
or programme entails. This section presents proposals for both impact minimisation measures
and follow-up and monitoring measures. Consideration proposals are also presented in chapter
two linked to specific assessment criteria.
Within the framework of the environmental impact assessment of the adopted marine spatial plan,
measures for the significant environmental effects that the marine spatial plan proposal was
considered to give rise to were analysed and described in detail (Swedish Agency for Marine and
Water Management, 2019a). The analysis was then synchronised with the development of a new
programme of measures under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the implementation
of the Marine Strategy Framework Regulation. As the guidance in the current proposal for
amended marine spatial plans on most uses does not differ from the guidance in the agreed
plans, that analysis and the description of measures made in 2019 are still valid today. These
measures are reproduced in Annex A. During 2023 - 2024, work is underway at the Agency to
update the action programme for the marine environment, and there is a need to continue to have
more interaction between the marine spatial planning process and the results of the assessment
of the marine environment and related action work.
The new proposal for amended marine spatial plans has a particular focus on the deployment of
offshore wind energy. Thus, the main objective of the present review procedure is to identify the
energy areas which, from an overall perspective, are most suitable to proceed to the final marine
spatial plan. Against this background, it is appropriate in the present impact assessment to look
more closely at measures that specifically address the effects of offshore wind energy on the
environment and other human activities. The impact assessment is at a horizontal, strategic level
and is therefore not suitable for identifying specific consideration measures for individual areas or
projects. The analysis is therefore based on five main types of measures and draws on the
results of the assessments in the previous chapter to illustrate which effects these types of
measures are suitable for. Types of actions are 1. Location, 2. The boundaries of the energy
sector, 3. Wind farm design, 4. Technology choices for construction, operation and
decommissioning, and 5. improvement measures; As a rule, planning concerns only the first two
types of measures, while types 1 to 4 are often subject to authorisation. Improving measures
have so far been mostly developed by wind energy companies on a voluntary basis, but
requirements for the introduction of such measures have started to be imposed by some
countries.
Location
The choice of location is a first and in many cases crucial step in assessing the suitability of an
energy area, both for its economic viability and for its environmental impact. Localisation is also a
fundamental assessment factor in the admissibility assessment of water operations under the
Environmental Code. Where assessment results show that a water operation poses too high a
risk of unacceptable damage to parts of the marine environment or other human interests, the
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operation may be denied at the proposed location. Such assessment is currently very difficult to
make at a strategic, overall level due to insufficiently detailed knowledge of environmental and
socio-economic conditions in all proposed energy areas. Applications for offshore wind power
establishment are currently made in accordance with the so-called box model, which means
that the final location within a given area is determined later than at the time of the actual
permit granting (Energy Authority, 2020). In the current system of indicative marine spatial
plans and an “open door” offshore wind establishment system. It is currently not possible to
decide on permissibility in a given area solely on the basis of the results of a strategic
assessment. Despite these limitations, the results of the impact assessment are considered to
provide a valuable indication of locations that are more or less problematic for a given use for
further planning. The fact that strategic assessments take into account cumulative effects in a
way that individual project assessments rarely do is particularly valuable. On the basis of the
results of the present impact assessment, it may, for example, be necessary to exclude areas
that are particularly riskful for birds or that threaten other marine life, or entail particularly high
losses or risks for other human activities or interests in future planning.
Borders of energy areas
There may be cases where the location of an energy area is generally acceptable, but where
some adjustments to its boundaries need to be made to minimise the risk of unacceptable impact
on other interests. The location sites unchanged in its main features, but the size of the energy
area is adjusted. Within the framework of the ongoing marine spatial planning, such adjustments
were made to the energy areas included in the Swedish Energy Agency’s (2023a) stage 1
mandate. However, taking into account the findings of this impact assessment, adaptation of the
boundaries of certain energy areas may be justified, inter alia, by the introduction of safety zones
around fairways; avoidance of fish spawning areas or disturbance of valuable bottom habitats;
reduced visual or physical disturbance of cultural and recreational environments; avoidance of
particularly valuable areas for other marine industries, such as fishing.
Wind farm design
This type of measure concerns the internal design of a wind farm. For example, distance between
wind turbines, arrangement of wind turbines or introduction of transit corridors. On a more
detailed level, the location of each individual wind turbine, so-called “micrositing”, is also included
in this type of measure. Micrositing is a permanent part of the wind farm design carried out by the
designer and used for environmental protection purposes, among other things, to avoid damage
to habitats worthy of protection. Measures of this kind generally aim to promote coexistence with
both nature values and other interests. Transit corridors may be introduced, or be part of
conditions to facilitate access by fishing vessels to fishing areas beyond the wind farm, or to
create more space for staging birds. Disposition and distance between wind turbines play a role,
among other things, for the ability to conduct fishing within a wind farm (Swedish Agency for
Marine and Water Management & Swedish Energy Agency, 2023) and for the degree of visual
impact from different points on the coast.
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Technological choices for construction, operation and
decommissioning
This type of measure includes many of the consideration measures provided for in permits for the
construction of offshore wind energy. The measures are very varied and generally adapted to the
specific conditions in the project area and the specific effects that the wind power project is
expected to give rise to. The identification of measures of this type thus requires detailed impact
assessments. Table 50 below summarises some of the most frequent technical measures
regarding environmental impacts used during the different stages of a wind farm (based on the
Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management & Swedish Energy Agency, 2023).
Corresponding technical measures may be required to reduce the risk of harm to other human
interests. In most cases, the introduction of such measures is made a condition for reducing the
impact on the environment and other human interests to acceptable levels in areas that would not
otherwise be suitable for wind power. It is common for conditions to be imposed with regard to
marine and aviation safety. The aim may also be to enable coexistence. In the case of fishing, for
example, the cabling, adaptation of construction work to fishing operations, power plant
foundations without protruding to avoid fishing gear can catch examples of other technology
choices that can be made. Examples are the cable laying, adaptation of construction work to
fishing operations, power plant foundations without protruding parts to avoid that fishing gear can
get stuck (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management & Swedish Energy Agency,
2023). Coexistence with defence interests is another area where technical adaptation may be
relevant.
Table 50. Consideration measures applied in the establishment of offshore wind energy. Based on a compilation prepared for
the OSPAR group on offshore renewable energy development, ICG-ORED. Damage mitigation comprises the following four
types of actions accordi
Phase Type of Description and objectives
measure
Research Location Location and burial of cables in a way to avoid impact on sensitive
and project benthic habitats or species.
design
Research Design Selection of materials and equipment with the least possible impact on
and project the environment, such as foundations that do not require piling or
design drilling or works with greater clearance between rotor blades and the
water surface.
Research Scheduling Conducting surveys outside sensitive periods for species worthy of
and project protection, such as reproduction, foraging and migration periods;
design
Construction Scheduling Carrying out construction and maintenance work outside sensitive
and periods for species worthy of protection, such as reproduction, foraging
maintenance and migration periods;
Construction Operational Emission controls to prevent or reduce various emissions or pressures
and management during civil engineering or maintenance work, such as noise-reducing
maintenance and control protective measures when piling foundations.
Construction Restoration Restoration of benthic habitats after completed construction and
and maintenance work, such as the burial of cables.
maintenance
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Phase Type of Description and objectives
measure
Construction Operational Regulation of obstacle lighting or other lighting in areas where
and operation management photosensitive species are present; However, there are limitations here
and control in a Swedish context.
Construction Operational The use of acoustic intimidation techniques in connection with work
and operation management that causes noise at a level that may be harmful to species worthy of
and control protection;
Construction Operational Control of emissions of pollutants to water and air which may be
and operation management harmful to the environment.
and control
Construction Operational Regulation of boat traffic in connection with construction, servicing and
and operation management maintenance in order to reduce the impact on species that are
and control sensitive to noise or other human influences.
Operation Operational Modifications to wind turbines or other parts of the wind farm in order to
management reduce the risk of collision for birds and bats, such as rotor blade
and control colouring and stop regulation;
Operation Operational Downtime in the event of unforeseen high environmental impacts in
and management order to implement mitigation or environmental restoration measures;
decommissio and control
ning
Settlement Scheduling Adaptation of the time of decommission or repowering to sensitive
periods for protected species present in the area, such as reproduction,
foraging or migration periods
Settlement Restoration Restoration of benthic habitats during decommission.
Improving and nature-based measures
This last type of measures includes measures developed so far mainly by wind energy operators
with a view to achieving certain environmental improvements related to the construction of an
offshore wind farm. The introduction of environmental improvement measures has mainly taken
place on a voluntary basis by wind power operators, but in recent years countries such as the UK
and the Netherlands have started to develop conditions for net positive environmental impact, so-
called “marine net gain”, and the introduction of nature-inclusive design in offshore wind projects,
respectively. Corresponding principles have been developed to create better conditions for other
human activities to be carried out within wind farms, such as recreational fishing and other
recreation or marine aquaculture. Improvement measures have so far been developed mainly in
the framework of pilot projects, but their application is likely to become the standard in the future.
As regards the environmental impacts identified in the context of this impact assessment,
improvement measures may be appropriate to increase the diversity of demersal habitats and
benefit demersal species.
Finally, it is appropriate to mention some areas where the need for new knowledge is intended to
be great in order to achieve sustainable use of the marine spatial plans in line with the objectives
of the marine spatial plans and Swedish marine governance. The environmental impact
assessment of adopted marine spatial plans described five proposals for investigation and
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coordination areas (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2019a): 1. cumulative
impacts of offshore wind energy on seabirds; 2. bats and the impact of wind power; 3. area-
specific measures in areas with particular consideration to high nature values; 4. diversion of
shipping in the South Bothnian Sea; and 5. further development of spatial data on ecosystem
services.
In the following paragraphs, three further areas in need of special investigation are discussed: 1.
winter navigation and offshore wind power in the Gulf of Bothnia; 2. the impact of offshore wind
power on outdoor activities, recreation and the tourism industry; and (3) an offshore wind
monitoring programme.
Winter navigation and offshore wind power
The problems surrounding the impact of offshore wind power on winter navigation have been
described by the Swedish Marine Administration in a memorandum in connection with the task of
developing proposals for suitable energy extraction areas for marine spatial planning (Energy
Agency, 2023a, Annex 5). In order to be able to assess the impact of marine spatial plans’
guidance on energy extraction and for marine spatial planning to be able to guide future use of
areas that are ice-covered parts of the year, the state of knowledge on the impact of wind power
needs to be improved. There is currently no experience from other countries regarding the
establishment of wind power and shipping in areas with similar conditions, which is why it is
particularly important to clarify the issue in the Gulf of Bothnia. The large number of energy areas
in the marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia is an important argument behind the
investigation.
The impact of offshore wind power on outdoor activities, recreation and the
tourism industry
Visual impact from offshore wind power is a common argument against wind power
establishment. Visual impact can affect the experience of both natural and built environments,
and affect the value of outdoor, recreational and cultural environments. However, knowledge of
the actual extent of this effect is lacking, both from abroad and in particular from Sweden. At the
beginning of 2024, the County Administrative Boards delivered a document identifying coastal
cultural environments that are at risk of being affected by offshore wind power. There is currently
no similar basis for recreation and outdoor activities. The importance of such an investigation is
great given the extensive expansion of offshore wind power along Sweden's coasts that the
marine spatial plans guide. Given the lack of knowledge about the actual effects on these two
aspects and about sequential effects on the tourism industry, it is currently not possible to make a
robust assessment of the effects of wind power establishment in different coastal areas. Within
the programme Offshore wind power in coexistence with human environment, research projects
are ongoing to investigate the effects of offshore wind power on tourism experiences (Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency, 2024a).
Offshore wind monitoring programme
The extensive expansion of offshore wind power guided by the marine spatial plans constitutes a
significant intervention in the Swedish marine environment. Although offshore wind farms have
been in operation for over two decades, knowledge of biological and ecological impacts is still
very limited. Within the same research programme mentioned above, a study is ongoing that
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focuses on the far-reaching effects of the Lillgrund offshore wind farm that has been in operation
since 2007, with a particular focus on fisheries and nature conservation (Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency, 2024). In the current state of knowledge, there is a particular lack of results on
the effects in the long term and across larger geographical areas. Given the large-scale
expansion not only in Sweden but also in neighbouring countries, it is precisely these large-scale
effects that need to be investigated.
Sweden's marine monitoring programme is insufficient to follow up the various environmental
effects of wind power in all areas where offshore wind power may be established. Already today,
there are shortcomings in monitoring some of the marine species and habitats that are
considered to be most affected by offshore wind power, such as the Baltic Sea harbour porpoise
and most migrating bird species. Sweden is not alone in this deficiency, which means that there is
relatively little knowledge of long-term, cumulative effects to be drawn from other countries. In
addition, the conditions in Sweden's territorial sea and economic zone differ significantly from
those in Skagerrak/Kattegat countries, where most of the knowledge about the effects of wind
power has so far been produced.
Wind power designers today collect very large amounts of data about the marine environment. As
a rule, this information sites private and only the part of the permit documents becomes public.
When wind farms are built, the wind power operator is obliged to follow up the environmental
effects in accordance with a control programme established by the State. Wind farms are fixed at
the same point, and also have direct access to electricity, which means that they would be good
measuring stations as a complement to buoys and other marine environmental monitoring.
Against this background, the possibilities for cooperation between the State, private wind energy
operators and other organisations, including the academia, should be analysed in the context of
the design of a future national monitoring programme.
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Methodology
The emphasis of the impact assessment is on estimating the differences in environmental, social
and economic impacts between the plan options and the zero alternative (see section 7.1). The
impact assessment has applied a mainly semi-quantitative approach, as described below. A
quantitative approach is not considered applicable in terms of the overall level of marine spatial
plans and the impossibility of setting numerical values for all the different aspects that the plans
affect and the effects they entail. The impact of the marine spatial plans is described in relative
terms from a change perspective in relation to the zero alternative. In particular, the impact
assessment highlights the relative effects that the different energy areas in marine spatial plans
can have.
The selection of assessment aspects included in the impact assessment was made on the basis
of the requirements in Chapter 6, Section 2 of the Environmental Code for the environmental
aspects. The selection of social and economic aspects was made on the basis of the criteria in
the sustainability assessment of agreed marine spatial plans (Swedish Agency for Marine and
Water Management, 2019b) taking into account the most likely impacts of offshore wind power. In
the selection of assessment aspects, comments received by the Swedish Agency for Marine and
Water Management during the delimitation consultation of the impact assessment were also
taken into account. The table below shows the assessment aspects used in the impact
assessment.
Table 51. Assessment aspects used in the impact assessment.
Assessment aspect
Population and human health
Protected animal and plant species and biodiversity: Birds, bats, marine mammals, bottom habitats,
fish and spawning areas and high nature values
Water and air
Climate
Landscape
Cultural environment
Management with land, water and the physical environment, as well as with materials, raw materials
and energy
Energy extraction – prerequisite, wind and depth conditions
Outdoor activities and recreation
Tourism industry
Defence
Maritime transport – accessibility and safety
Commercial fishing – landing value
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Population and health
The assessment of impacts on human health is based on aspects identified as relevant in relation
to proposed uses in the marine spatial plan, with a focus on impacts and impacts related to
offshore wind deployment.
- Noise disturbance – airborne noise emitted by offshore wind turbines.
- Visual disturbance – obstacle lighting, shading and the wind turbines themselves.
- Risk of accidents or accidents with an indirect effect on human health.
- Indirect effects on human health through changes in emissions, both positive and
negative.
The Sustainability Impact Assessment carried out in 2019, a socio-economic impact assessment
from WSP (Paulsson et al. 2024) as well as communication with experts have been the basis for
the assessments.
Protected animal and plant species and biodiversity,
bottom habitats
Assessment of the aspects Protected animal and plant species and biodiversity and Benthic
habitats is based on the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management’s Symphony
method for assessing cumulative effects (for a detailed description of the Symphony method and
its use in an impact assessment, see Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management,
2019a; for Symphony metadata, see Annex 1 of the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management, 2018c. Analyses of the effects of changes in use, in this case energy use, have
been made for all energy areas. The results of effects on ecosystem components marine
mammals, wintering birds, coastal bird spawning areas and bottom habitats have then been used
to show the potential effect of different areas on a scale from zero to four, with four indicating
large negative effect. The overall Symphony results have formed the basis for an expert
assessment of the risk of impact in each marine spatial plan area.
The method for assessing effects on birds is based on evidence from the Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency and the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, as well as expert
assessment from Lund University and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency.
The method for assessing effects on bats is based on a risk assessment dialogue between
SwAM, SLU and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency.
Water and air, and other elements of the environment
The assessment of effects on air refers to changes in emissions of airborne pollutants as a result
of the marine spatial plan guidance. The uses relevant in this context are shipping, fishing, sand
extraction and offshore wind. Wind power partly based on conversion to fossil-free energy and
reduced air pollution related to this. Effects on water as a habitat refer to changes in the physical
and chemical conditions of water as a result of the marine spatial plan guidance on the different
uses. For the assessment aspects of water and air, it has not been relevant to assess the impact
of individual energy areas, this is because effects are not local or permanent, but rather affect
quality factors throughout the marine spatial planning area.
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Climate
The climate aspect describes how the marine spatial plan guidance can contribute positively or
negatively to greenhouse gas emissions. Potential climate benefits are illustrated by a calculation
example. Nature conservation, as well as particular consideration for high nature values, is
considered to be an indication of how marine spatial planning can contribute to increased
resilience and climate adaptation by protecting ecosystems from disturbances.
Landscape
The method for assessing the effects of energy areas on landscapes has been divided into
visualisations that are presented as a separate part in Chapter 2.3.3, as well as a visibility
analysis that constitutes the assessment itself.
Visualizations
The general photo montages showing landscape effects at different distances from land have
been produced by Ramboll at the request of the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management. Photo montage or visualizations tend to mitigate the experience compared to a real
offshore wind farm. The visual influence is subjective in the viewer. Detailed visualisations for
individual energy areas were not possible within the scope of the assignment, but the visualised
sample parks are seen as a medium-sized offshore wind farm.
Visibility analysis
The method for assessing landscape impact is based on a so-called viewshed analysis in order to
assess the effects from the energy areas. These are presented in the site-specific assessments.
The visibility analysis has been done by a final summary of the impact that the individual energy
areas give rise to following this analysis. The method is calculated based on views for
approximately 50 000 land observation points and takes into account the topography of the
landscape and altitude-blocked views, but not any vegetation. The Geological Survey of Sweden
has conducted the viewshed analysis in ArcGIS Pro according to the method description below.
The analysis is based on elevation data from a so-called Digital Elevation Model (DEM) from
Copernicus. The raster data has a resolution of 30 meters and is produced by the Copernicus
programme of the European Space Agency (ESA). The vision analysis is then calculated
according to the following detailed steps:
• Elevation data from Copernicus about 30 meters resolution is converted to a 1 kilometer
resolution.
• The visibility analysis is in turn based on a data set called offshore visibility dataset.
• The vertical extent is based on an observation height of 1.7 metres on land and a
maximum height of 300 metres from sea level.
• Observers are located at intervals of one kilometre in areas within 70 kilometres of
Sweden's sea border. A maximum visibility distance of 70 kilometres has been adopted,
representing an ideal and precautionary scenario to ensure that no potential visibility is
overlooked. This relatively conservative approach takes into account the maximum extent
of a theoretical viewing distance, even under optimal visibility conditions linked to
atmosphere and light.
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• The tool ArcGIS Viewshed2 was used to calculate visibility based on observer placement,
altitude data and turbine heights. The final visibility dataset is in 1 kilometre resolution.
Visibility values represent a theoretical line of sight from the observer points to the wind
turbines, taking into account the terrain.
• The visual impact is in turn designed to show the visual impact of offshore wind turbines.
The analysis includes buffering of energy areas, selection of observer points, calculation
of line of sight and quantification of visual impact based on angle and distance.
• Energy areas were buffered with a 70 kilometer radius to define the area of potential
visual impact, where all observer points within this 70 kilometer buffer were selected. This
resulted in approximately 50 000 points that were used in the analysis. For each point, the
same observer altitude of 1.7 metres was assumed, as well as 300 metres maximum
altitude and 70 kilometer maximum visibility.
• The intersection between each sieve analysis and the energy area was calculated to
define the visual impact.
• The visual impact for each observation point and energy area was calculated based on
the angle at which the observer's view meets the energy area and the distance from the
point to the energy area. The visual impact was measured with a combination of the
visibility analysis and a customized effect evaluation based on the angle and distance
overlap. Distance impact decreases linearly from 100 at 0 kilometers and 0 at 70
kilometers, reflecting the reduced visual impact at increased distance. The angular
influence was based on the calculation of the apparent angular width from each energy
area from the observation point, on a scale of 0 to 100. The minimum distance to the
visible part of each energy area was used.
• The total impact was calculated by multiplying the distance impact by the angle impact,
ensuring that both factors contributed proportionally to the overall visual impact level. This
approach allows for a more nuanced assessment of visual impact, taking into account
both the proximity and the extent of visibility from different angles.
• To make assessments for each energy area's impact on landscapes, a final analysis was
made that summarizes the total potential visual impact for each energy area by
aggregating individual impact values from land-based observation points. Consideration is
given to the effect that nearby areas can hide the view from the underlying energy areas.
The summary gives an overview of what the visual impact can be for each energy area
and is presented on a scale from large to no effect.
Other impacts on landscapes
An account of the potential effects of energy areas on other areas related to landscape impact,
such as landscape protection areas in the Nature Conservation Act (1964:822), areas of national
interest (Chapter 4, Sections 3 - 4 of the Environmental Code) and national parks is also included
in the assessment of the impact on landscapes.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
Potential cumulative and transboundary effects are presented qualitatively along the viewshed
analysis and the other effects on landscapes, in terms of number, size, distance and design of
energy areas. The cross-border effects are partly due to the potential impact of Swedish energy
areas on the landscape in neighbouring countries. Also existing and planned energy areas in
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neighbouring countries that may have cumulative effects on landscapes in Sweden, not least
cross-border cumulatively.
Cultural environment
The method for assessing the effects of energy areas on the cultural environment has been
divided into different sections, which are presented in chapters 3.3.4, 4.3.4 and 5.3.4. The
assessment of the effects on the cultural environment has been based on national interest claims
for conservation of the cultural environment (Chapter 3, Section 6 of the Environmental Code). In
addition, the County Administrative Boards' planning basis for marine cultural heritage (regional
value areas) in the national marine spatial planning (County Administrative Boards, 2024) has
been used in its own part. Direct effects have then been reported for marine archaeological sites,
as well as assessment of other effects on the cultural environment and cumulative and
transboundary effects. The results are shown in figures in chapters 3, 4 and 5. The Swedish
Energy Agency (2023a), Annex 6, has been used for descriptions of the impact on cultural
environment interests. These descriptions assess the extent to which the proposed energy areas
risk affecting different known cultural environment types, creating dominance and/or competition
against the cultural environments or affecting specifically designated cultural environment values
as World Heritage Sites. These three aspects relate primarily to the visual (indirect) impact
caused by the wind farms, which in turn can affect the experience of the different cultural heritage
values.
Indirect impact – National interest in cultural heritage conservation (Chapter 3,
Section 6 of the Environmental Code)
Indirect impact on national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation has been assessed
on the basis of a geographical overlap analysis of national interest claims. Buffer zones of 12.5,
25, 35, 50 and 70 kilometres have been created around national interest claims. Different types of
overlap have been given different weights in the assessment, with a closer overlap weighted
higher than an overlap further away, and a 70 kilometer buffer weighted lowest. This is done to
capture the impact of the energy areas on the cultural environment in terms of its proximity and
the assessment is expected to capture the distance of the energy areas and the length parallel to
the coast. Unlike the method for landscape impact, the assessment for the cultural environment
does not take into account terrain, or vegetation on the coast. This can have a major impact on
the visual impact from different areas on land. In addition to the quantitative analysis, the Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management, together with the Swedish National Heritage Board,
has anchored methods and assessments and the results have been reviewed and adjusted
qualitatively if necessary. This is because there are shortcomings in a quantitative overlap
analysis to assess the impact on national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation, where
not all aspects can be captured. Impact refers to conditions for national interest claims for cultural
heritage conservation and potential impact based on current value descriptions. Area-specific
assessments have been limited to areas with high and medium impact, as well as national
interest claims for cultural heritage conservation located within 25 kilometers of the energy areas
that are considered to pose a risk of high or medium impact on cultural heritage conservation.
The aim is to highlight areas where dominance and/or competition with cultural heritage values
can occur, as well as the type of impact that is relevant based on the sensitivity of each cultural
heritage. This is in line with the Swedish National Heritage Board's upcoming report, which
outlines their development work on general consideration distance for dominance/competition
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regarding offshore wind power and cultural environments. The report on these development
efforts in connection with the government assignment will be published in 2025.
Direct impact
As a complement to the assessment of the impact on the cultural environment, a geographical
analysis of direct impact has been produced, which is mainly linked to marine archaeological sites
such as wrecks. The result is reported by the number of registered marine archaeological sites
from the Cultural Environment Register (Riksantikvarieämbetet, u.y.). The number of marine
archaeological sites per energy area has been compiled in a table to show the potential direct
impact on the cultural environment.
Indirect and direct impact – Regional value areas
Assessment for impact on the county administrative boards' developed regional value areas
(County Administrative Boards, 2024) has a similar method as for assessment of impact on
national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation, but has been divided to clarify the
assessments. The assessment is based on a similar geographical overlap analysis of indirect
impacts, but where there is direct overlap of regional value areas with energy areas, they have
been weighted higher and then in decreasing longer weight along buffered distances. This is due
to the fact that value ranges are above and/or below the surface. For the assessment, the County
Administrative Boards' value descriptions and consideration recommendations for designated
regional value areas have been used qualitatively. It should be noted that the descriptions are not
exhaustive, but are based on the selection of cultural heritage values described in the planning
documents. In addition, even energy areas with a lower impact assessment can create
dominance and/or competition for cultural heritage values, especially for cultural heritage within
35 kilometres, a limit that has been used as a general distance of consideration for the regional
value areas (County Administrative Boards, 2024), which marine spatial planning has taken as its
starting point in connection with areas with high cultural heritage values (small-k). This limit differs
from the limit of dominance/competition that the Swedish National Heritage Board invokes in their
development work.
Other impacts on cultural environment
The potential effects of energy areas on other areas related to the impact on cultural
environments, such as landscape protection areas in the Nature Conservation Act (1964:822),
areas of national interest (Chapter 4, Sections 3 - 4 of the Environmental Code) and World
Heritage sites, are then reported. Their values are described in a separate section where it is
relevant for the assessments of the impact of energy areas on the cultural environment.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
Finally, it also describes the transboundary impact on the cultural environment, partly the
potential impact of Swedish energy areas on cultural environments in neighbouring countries, but
also the potential impact of neighbouring countries' planned energy areas on cultural
environments in Sweden. A method for cumulative impact has also been developed. National
interest claims for cultural heritage conservation and regional value areas have been dealt with
separately, where overlaps from these areas with energy areas have been calculated in direct,
12.5, 25, 35, 50 and 70 kilometer buffering. The overlap has then been added together, based on
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the number of cultural environments affected, but also along its distance. A higher weighting has
been made if a cultural environment area is close compared to further away. It is only the closest
overlap that counts for each cultural heritage site. The weighted values have then been summed
up to a total value that constitutes the cumulative assessment. See examples below.
Table 52. Example of the method for assessing cumulative effects of energy areas on cultural environments.
Energy area Direct 12.5km 25km 35km (1*5) 50km (1*2.5) 70km (1*1) Total
overlap (1*10) (1*7.5)
(1*15)
X123 0 10 15 10 7,5 2 44,5
X456 15 0 7,5 5 5 4 36,5
X789 0 0 0 5 2,5 1 8,5
Management with land, water and the physical
environment, as well as with materials, raw materials and energy
The assessment of the management of land, water and the physical environment, as well as of
materials, raw materials and energy, is made on the basis of the Ordinance on Land and Water
Management (SFS 1998:896) and the relevant national interest claims (the National Board of
Housing, Building and Planning) and uses within the marine spatial plan areas, both as individual
assessments (recreation, cultural environment, nature, shipping, commercial fishing), and
gathered in the overall impact assessment in Chapter 6.
Energy extraction
The starting point for the method and assessment of the marine spatial plans' energy areas is the
Swedish Energy Agency's interim report of the government assignment, Proposals for suitable
energy extraction areas for marine spatial plans (Energy Agency 2023a). The Swedish Energy
Agency is the national interest authority for national energy claims and existing national interest
claims were also taken into account in the agency's interim reporting. All energy areas in the
marine spatial plan consist of reported energy extraction areas and have initially been assessed
as suitable by the Swedish Energy Agency.
Energy impact assessment consists of a descriptive overall analysis at marine spatial plan level
including area, wind and depth ratio, distribution of foundation type and location, as well as a
criteria assessment for each energy area.
For criteria assessment, a grading of the energy areas is carried out based on character and
conditions. The approach is similar to that used by the Swedish Energy Agency (2023e), with
some modification. The Swedish Energy Agency's method is based on a model with criteria wind
speed, water depth and distance to land.
Current assessment of energy areas includes assessment of wind and depth conditions, but
excludes criteria for distance to land. The criterion for wind conditions is based on the area's
bearing capacity based on the potential for electricity produced, based on wind resource (wind
strength), where the area size of the wind farm (area) is also relevant. In addition, assessment of
depth conditions is included, based on the importance of investment costs for construction and
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choice of technology, bottom-fixed or floating foundations. The characteristics of the areas in
terms of wind and depth ratio are spatial conditions, which are considered to be relatively
constant and include a lower degree of uncertainty in order to assess the natural geographical
conditions for construction and realisation.
With regard to distance to land and connection and maintenance costs depend on infrastructure
conditions, such as distance to the appropriate connection point to the transmission point,
possible storage solutions (e.g. hydrogen) and port operations for maintenance. Connection costs
for electricity distribution and maintenance are essential, but involve relatively greater uncertainty
as to where and in what form this will actually take place. Based on the assessment's time
perspective to 2040 and uncertainties regarding future expansion of connection points and
distribution networks, as well as storage forms, distance to land is therefore not included as a
criterion for each energy area.
Criteria assessment for each energy area is limited to only spatial terrestrial conditions regarding
wind and depth conditions. Prerequisites such as distance to land are, however, to some extent
included in the descriptive analysis, in the aspect of whether the energy area is located within the
territorial sea, 12 nautical miles (about 22 kilometers) from the baseline or not.
Wind and depth criteria
Method and starting point for criteria analysis are geographical analyses regarding wind and
depth conditions, based on an average of the respective criteria for each energy area. Analyses
are based on modelled breaks of depth data and wind data from the Baltic sea hydrographic
commission (u.y.), respectively the New European wind atlas (u.y.). Both wind and depth
conditions can vary within the energy area and the character of the areas refers to wind, and
depth and is grouped into three different groups, with 1 - 3 points, as below. Justification for the
choice of grouping is based on documentation from the Swedish Energy Agency (2023e)
Table 53. Grouping for wind speed and depth criteria.
Group/points Wind speed at 150 m hub height, medium Depth, medium
1 Less than 8,5 m/s Depths exceeding -70 m
2 Between 8,5 and 9 m/s Between -40 and -70 m
3 Greater than 9 m/s Founder than -40 m
Based on, wind and depth ratio, points are summed per criterion for each energy area. Energy
area are then grouped based on min and max values on a scale of 1-4, where measured min
value 3 corresponds to 1 and max value 6 corresponds to 4, see example below.
Grouping and summation is a simplified and rough estimate for comparison and visualization of
the nature and natural conditions of the areas, and overall per marine spatial plan. For the
method, no weighting of the parameters beyond the score scale is used, but wind and depth
conditions are considered equivalent.
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Table 54. Examples of criteria assessment, summation and grouping.
Energy area Wind speed Depth, Total Relative
at 150 m hub medium scale 1 - 4
height,
medium
X123 3 3 6 4
X456 2 2 4 2
X789 2 1 3 1
Conditions are also assessed overall at the marine spatial plan level, based on averages per
energy area, relative to the size of the energy area, as shown below.
• FH = Total: (Pev*ey /YH) + (Ped * ey /YH), where;
FH = Conditions, nature of wind and depth, mean seaplane
Pev = energy area grouping wind, points
Ped = energy area grouping depth, points
ey = area (km2) energy area;
YH = total area (km2) in marine spatial plan with guidance on energy
extraction
The criteria method with regard to wind and depth conditions can be seen as a simplified version
of the Swedish Energy Agency's initial for the selection of suitable energy areas. Analyses and
methods regarding conditions for offshore wind power can also be found in the appendix to the
report Wind power in the sea (Government's public investigations, 2024).
Uncertainties and limitations of the method
The analysis is thus based on modelled breaks of depth data and wind data from the Baltic sea
hydrographic commission (u.y.) and the New European wind atlas (u.y.) respectively. The depth
data is not comprehensive, and several data points are therefore interpolated. For those places
where depth data is less reliable, the result is also less reliable. The method has nevertheless
been considered reasonable as the greatest uncertainties are at greater depth and given that the
ranges of depth used in the analysis are so large, the outcome is nevertheless considered
reasonable. However, the result should not be read in too high resolution, but is intended to be
used at a strategic level.
Since the energy areas are not homogeneous in terms of depth and wind speed, but in several
cases include depth and/or wind from at least two categories, this means that some areas get a
lower average in the analysis than more homogeneously cropped areas after depth curves would
get. Nevertheless, the report at energy area level gives an indication of how the conditions for the
areas can be assessed.
The methodology also does not take into account where appropriate connection points to the
terrestrial transmission network would be, or potential storage possibilities (e.g. hydrogen), which
limits the assessment of the economic conditions for investment and maintenance.
In addition, the methodology does not include potential price developments for electricity prices,
revenues or price developments for inputs for construction and maintenance, cost side, which
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constitutes a significant part for the actual realisation of the plan’s guidance on areas for energy
extraction and wind farm construction. More information on this can be found in the appendix to
the report Wind power in the sea (Government Official Reports, 2024).
Recreation
Methods for assessing the impact of energy areas on recreation are based on national interest for
mobile recreation (Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code), national interest claims for
recreation (Chapter 3, Section 6 of the Environmental Code), and the Swedish Energy Agency
(2023a), Annex 6. The results are presented in chapters 3.4.2, 4.4.2 and 5.4.2 with descriptions
and figures. There is also an assessment linked to the impact on accessibility, primarily for
recreational boating, as well as an assessment of other impacts on recreation and cumulative and
cross-border effects.
Area-specific assessments – National interest for mobile recreation (Chapter 4,
Section 2 of the Environmental Code) and national interest claims for recreation (Chapter
3, Section 6 of the Environmental Code)
Similar to the method for assessing the impact on the cultural environment, a geographical
overlap analysis has been made based on areas of national interest and areas of national
interest. However, the analysis was only used as a quantitative complement to roughly see
potential impact linked to distance and proximity, but not all aspects. Together with the Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency, a qualitative assessment of the impact on recreation from
energy areas has been made based on the national interest for mobile recreation and national
interest claims for recreation. The Swedish Energy Agency’s (2023a) Annex 6 includes value
descriptions and descriptions of the impact on orecreation that have also been used. The
assessments are based on the marine spatial plans' energy areas and include potential indirect
(visual) impact on coastal-based national interests and national interest claims. Impact refers to
conditions for recreation and potential impact based on current value descriptions, such as visual
impact, experience values and accessibility. The results are presented as area-specific
assessments and are presented in figures together with descriptions.
Accessibility
The assessment of accessibility is linked to a more direct impact on recreation. This mainly
relates to recreational boating in the marine spatial planning area, where barrier effects can occur
for example recreational boating routes, but also linked to accessibility in areas of the sea linked
to activities such as recreational fishing. This is particularly evident for the offshore national
interest claims for recreation outside Halland. As a complement to the assessment, an overall
geographical analysis has been made of recreational boating within the marine spatial planning
area as part of the accessibility assessment. The basis for the assessment was the Automatic
Identification System (AIS) data from EMODnet (2022). It used data on vessel density for
pleasure craft and sailboats for the years 2017 to 2022. The data was merged into a layer
calculated along the energy areas of the marine spatial plans, where a mean value within the
energy area was summed up. The result was compiled in a table and shows a monthly average
of the number of timber there is recreational boating activity in each energy area between the
years 2017 – 2022. The base also shows figures. It should be mentioned that most recreational
boats do not use AIS, as recreational shipping usually consists of smaller boats that move within
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the archipelago and not out in the marine spatial planning areas. This analysis therefore covers
only a part of recreational boating.
Other impacts on recreation
The potential effects of energy areas on other areas related to the impact on recreation are then
reported. The national interests of unbroken coasts (Chapter 4, Section 3 of the Environmental
Code) and high-exploited coasts (Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code), as well as
national parks, have been dealt with separately as a complement to the assessment. Their values
are described in a separate paragraph where it is relevant for the assessments of the impact of
energy areas on recreation.
Cumulative and transboundary effects
Finally, an assessment is made of cumulative and transboundary impacts on recreation. The
cumulative effects are accounted for in terms of the potential impact of energy areas on the
number of areas linked to recreation, as well as linked to its proximity. The cumulative effects are
also assessed on the basis of whether most wind farms would be realised. The cross-border
effects describe the potential impact of Swedish energy areas on recreation areas in
neighbouring countries, as well as the potential impact of neighbouring countries' planned energy
areas on recreation areas in Sweden. This is mainly linked to indirect (visual) effects, but can also
be direct, such as barrier effects or effects linked to accessibility.
Shipping
Assessment of the impact on shipping is based on national interest claims for communications
under Chapter 3, Section 8 of the Environmental Code. The assessment of the effects on
accessibility and safety in shipping is based on a relative comparison between energy areas
regarding how shipping may be affected and what conditions exist for coexistence. The need for
adaptation and safety distances are described in planning documents, as well as planning
documents Proposals for suitable energy extraction areas for marine spatial plans The Swedish
Energy Agency (2023a), Section 4, Annexes 5 and 6. Annex 6 describes the adaptations to
shipping that are relevant for each energy area.
For the assessment of each energy area, a number of criteria are used, which are then weighed
together. Assessment is initially based on geographical overlap analysis based on the national
interest including safety distances, area and share of safety zone relative to the respective energy
areas. Thereafter, an estimate is made of the need for a changed fairway, as well as visual
analysis of the area within the marine spatial plan area relevant for winter navigation
(icebreaking), if the energy area is adjacent to more than one fairway, if it is adjacent to a fairway
in a neighbouring country and/or an IMO-classified route, and if special remark regarding
unsuitability or safety zone is reported in the Swedish Energy Agency (2023a).
For comparison between energy area, the following summation and indexation are used:
Impact on shipping = AZn + AAn + JF + VSn + FL + AN + GL
AZn = Area, potential area within safety zone, normalised
AAn = Percentage of energy area total area related to safety zone, normalized
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JF = Adjusted fairway, increased mileage, percentage in decimal form.
VSn = Winter navigation, energy area as a proportion of plan area, normalised
FL = Multidimensional influence. Adjoining fairway, No, (0), adjoining 1- 2 fairways (0.5),
Adjacent to more than two fairways or ‘‘crammed’ (1)
AN - Report Note (No (0) /Yes, Not Acceptable (1), Yes, Note Safety Distance Requirement (0.5))
GL = Borders with neighbouring fairway, and IMO-classified fairway (No (0) /Neighbouring
country (0,5), IMO (1)
Total impact on shipping, indexed, normalized to 0-1, and then distributed based on the highest
value.
The assessment is based on interim report The Swedish Energy Agency (2023a) and provides an
overview of the conditions for coexistence with shipping. Further investigations regarding the
conditions for winter navigation and area-specific adaptation for coexistence with shipping and
wind power are required in permit decisions on wind power establishment.
Commercial fishing
The economic analysis is based on the report How is Swedish commercial fishing of offshore
wind power affected? with complementary materials (Waldo S. & Blomquist J., 2024a and
2024b). The report contains a more detailed methodological description than the summary
presented here.
The exposure of commercial fisheries to wind energy establishment in the proposed energy areas
is measured using landing values over the period 2013-2023. The landing value is calculated by
multiplying the reported catches (from the vessels’ logbooks) by a price by species (from the
catch value statistics). By calculating landing values from catches inside and outside energy
areas, a picture is obtained of how commercial fishing is affected by energy areas. A fishing
activity is defined as affected by the energy area if all or part of the fishing activity has taken place
within the area. For a trawl line, this means that it is sufficient that a small part has been inside
the area for it to be defined as an affected fishing activity. This means that the values reported
cannot be interpreted strictly as ‘catches within the energy zones’, as part of the catch may have
taken place outside the zone. The definition corresponds to a situation where it is difficult or too
costly to carry out parts of the trawl tow if it is not possible to trawl through the energy area. The
economic analysis also assumes that commercial fishing will be completely excluded from energy
areas, although trawl fishing for Norway lobster in combination with wind farms with fixed
foundations is considered, however, after adaptation of the wind farm, to be able to coexist to
some extent.
The analysis is based on logbook data and satellite-based monitoring through
‘Vessel Monitoring System’ (VMS) between 2013 and 2023, as well as the value of fished-in
statistics reported by the HaV to EU economic statistics (European Commission, 2021). All prices
are adjusted by the Consumer Price Index (CPI) to the 2023 value (established annual values
according to Statistics Sweden). To calculate the landing value per fishing activity, the landing
weights in the logbook are multiplied by a price by species. The price used is based on the value
fished reported and corresponds to the average landing price per vessel, species, catch area and
year.
- 304 -
The fish included in the analysis reported for Skagerrak/Kattegat and the Gulf of Bothnia:
• Gulf of Bothnia:
o Bottom trawl fisheries for cod and demersal species
o Pelagic trawl fisheries for cod
o Bottom trawl fisheries for vendace
o Bottom trawl fisheries targeting pelagic species, mainly herring, sprat and
mackerel
o Pelagic trawl fisheries, mainly herring, sprat and mackerel
o Purse seine fisheries targeting pelagic species mainly herring and sprat
• Skagerrak/Kattegat:
o Bottom trawl fisheries with shrimp trawls
o Bottom trawl fisheries mainly targeting Norway lobster
o Bottom trawl fisheries (including Danish seines) targeting mainly demersal fish
o Bottom trawl fisheries targeting pelagic species, mainly herring, sprat and
mackerel
o Pelagic trawl fisheries, mainly herring, sprat and mackerel
o Purse seine fisheries targeting pelagic species mainly herring and sprat
The relative impact on total landing values per energy area is shown in one map for the Gulf of
Bothnia (pelagic trawling and bottom trawling) and two maps for Skagerrak/Kattegat (shrimp
fishing and Norway lobster and fish fishing). ‘Total landing value’ means the average total landing
value for Swedish fisheries over the period 2013-2023 for the specific fishery (e.g. Northern
prawn) in Sweden’s territorial waters and exclusive economic zone. The percentage has been
divided into intervals from 0 percent to more than 4 percent. For areas included in the baseline,
no impact is reported. The zero alternative covers areas where there are permits for the
establishment of offshore wind energy.
- 305 -
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List of Figures
Figure 1. The planning objectives and some of the overarching objectives and conditions that
have formed the basis for the formulation of the planning objectives (Swedish Agency for Marine
and Water Management, 2024b). .................................................................................................. 16
Figure 2. Shows the zero alternative in the impact assessment consisting of energy areas where
there are permits to establish offshore wind power, including the already existing wind farm
Lillgrund (Ö287). ............................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 3. Shows an illustration of climate change in the ocean (Own illustration: Veronica
Berntson). ....................................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 4. Examples of possible CO2 emission trajectories at different RCPs given as billion
tonnes of carbon (van Vuuren et al., 2011).................................................................................... 48
Figure 6. Displays the expected change in surface salt content (PSU) for RCP 4.5 (left) and 8.5
(right). ............................................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 5. Displays the expected change in sea surface temperature in degrees Celcius for RCP
4.5 (left) and 8.5 (right). .................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 7. Shows Sweden's emissions of carbon dioxide equivalents broken down by different
sectors. Note that the figures in the figure were preliminary, and differ from Statistics Sweden's
figures. Image source: Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, 2024c. ................................. 52
Figure 8. Shows the distribution of energy sources in the Nordic residual mix in 2023. Source
Energy Market Inspectorate, 2024 ................................................................................................. 53
Figure 9. The layout of the sample park with 72 wind turbines placed in grids with 1.7 kilometers
of distance between the turbines. The red angle shows the point of view from land. ................... 55
Figure 10. The example park with a 12.5 km distance from land to the nearest works. ............... 56
Figure 11. The example park with a 5 km distance from land to the nearest works. .................... 56
Figure 12. The example park with a 25 km distance from land to the nearest works. .................. 57
Figure 13. The example park with a 35 km distance from land to the nearest works. .................. 57
Figure 14. Example of cumulative effect with the example park 12.5 km from land with a view to
the right with another park 25 km from land................................................................................... 58
Figure 15. The example park with a 50 km distance from land to the nearest works. .................. 58
Figure 16. Map of national interest unbroken coast, high-exploited coast and national interest
claims for cultural heritage conservation (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management,
2025)............................................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 17. Map of other valuable areas for the cultural environment such as World Heritage Sites,
regional value areas, marine archaeological sites, cultural reserves and landscape conservation
(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2025). ...................................................... 62
Figure 18. Electricity consumption by sector, 2022 share of TWh. Source Swedish Energy
Agency, 2024.................................................................................................................................. 65
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Figure 19. Industrial electricity use by industry, 2022 TWh. Source Swedish Energy Agency 2024.
........................................................................................................................................................ 66
Figure 20. End-use electricity (TWh) for the counties of Stockholm, Västra Götaland, Skåne,
Norrbotten, Västernorrland, distributed consumer category, 2022. Source SCB 2024................. 66
Figure 21. Professional fisheries 2012-2021: Compilation of annual economic landing values for
Swedish fisheries for the period 2012-2021: Passive fishing (top left); Pelagic trawl fisheries
(upper right); Demersal/bottom trawl fisheries (bottom trawl) (bottom left). .................................. 84
Figure 22. Shows the distance of energy areas to urban areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Source:
Statistics Sweden, 2020. ................................................................................................................ 90
Figure 23. Risks of adverse effects on migratory birds in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows
great effect and light color shows little effect. ................................................................................ 93
Figure 24. Potential negative effect on bird wintering areas of proposed energy extraction areas in
the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. ................... 94
Figure 25. Potential negative effect on bats of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of
Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. ..................................... 96
Figure 26. Potential negative impact of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia
on ringed seals. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. ........................ 98
Figure 27. Potential negative effect of proposals for energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia
on benthic habitats. Energy area B152 is expected to have a small negative effect, while other
energy areas in the plan are expected to have a marginal effect on benthic habitats. ............... 101
Figure 28. Potential negative effect on fish and spawning grounds of proposed energy extraction
areas in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows more effect and light color shows less effect. White
color shows energy area in the zero alternative. ......................................................................... 103
Figure 29. Areas using nature (N) and decided on the respective proposals for new areas with
particular consideration to high nature values (n) in the Gulf of Bothnia. .................................... 105
Figure 30. Displays marine sampling stations and proposed energy areas, including the zero
alternative in the marine spatial plan area of the Gulf of Bothnia. ............................................... 108
Figure 31. The two upper maps show the expected winter ice extent for RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5
respectively. The two lower ones show the expected ice thickness according to RCP 4.8 and
RCP 8.5. ....................................................................................................................................... 112
Figure 32. Potential negative effect on landscapes of proposed energy areas in the Gulf of
Bothnia. In the energy areas, dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect.
Accumulated visibility from land is shown over the sea and visibility of energy areas is shown over
land. .............................................................................................................................................. 114
Figure 33. Potential indirect negative effect of energy areas on national interest claims for cultural
environment in the Gulf of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little
effect. ............................................................................................................................................ 117
Figure 34. Risk of impact on marine archaeological sites. .......................................................... 120
Figure 35. Indirect and direct negative impact on regional cultural heritage value areas. .......... 122
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Figure 36. Map of energy areas in the plan proposal, zero alternatives, and initially identified
suitable energy areas for energy extraction (Energimyndigheten.2023a), as well as conditions for
energy extraction based on wind and depth conditions. .............................................................. 127
Figure 37. Distribution of areas for energy extraction (km2), average depth and foundation type.
...................................................................................................................................................... 131
Figure 38. Distribution of energy extraction areas (km2), territorial sea and exclusive economic
zone. ............................................................................................................................................. 132
Figure 39. Assumptions on connection bidding zones. ............................................................... 134
Figure 40. Potential negative effect on recreation of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf
of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. ............................... 136
Figure 41. Prevalence of recreational boating activity in proposed energy areas in the Gulf of
Bothnia based on an average of hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022 (Emodnet, 2022). 139
Figure 42. Relative potential negative effect of energy areas on shipping in the Gulf of Bothnia.
Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. ................................................. 145
Figure 43. The map shows proposed energy areas, use of commercial fishing and national
interest claims for commercial fishing in the Gulf of Bothnia. The figure also shows the impact as
a percentage of the total annual landing value (pelagic floating or bottom trawl) per energy area.
...................................................................................................................................................... 149
Figure 44. Demonstrates what an offshore wind development could look like in the Gulf of Bothnia
if greater consideration were taken to avoid negative impacts on nature and culture values based
on the impact assessment............................................................................................................ 156
Figure 45. The map shows what an expansion of offshore wind power could look like in the Gulf
of Bothnia if greater consideration were taken to avoid negative impacts on values for shipping
and commercial fishing based on the impact assessment. ......................................................... 157
Figure 46. Map of proposed energy areas in the Gulf of Bothnia and energy expansion plans of
neighbouring countries. Source: EMODnet, 2022, Flanders Marine Institute, 2023. .................. 159
Figure 47. Map showing distances from energy areas to agglomerations in the Baltic Sea marine
spatial plan area. Source: Statistics Sweden, 2020. .................................................................... 161
Figure 48. Areas using nature (N) and decided on the respective proposals for new areas with
particular consideration to high nature values (n) in the Baltic Sea (Swedish Agency for Marine
and Water Management 2024c)................................................................................................... 166
Figure 49. Potential negative effect on landscapes of proposed energy areas in the Baltic Sea. In
the energy areas, dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. Accumulated
visibility from land is shown over the sea and visibility of energy areas is shown over land. ...... 170
Figure 50. Potential indirect negative effect of energy areas on national interest claims for cultural
environment in the Baltic Sea. ..................................................................................................... 172
Figure 51. Risk of impact on marine archaeological sites. .......................................................... 174
Figure 52. Indirect and direct negative impact on regional cultural heritage value areas. .......... 176
Figure 53. Map of energy areas in plan proposals, zero alternatives, and initial planning basis The
Swedish Energy Agency 2023. .................................................................................................... 179
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Figure 54. Potential negative effect on recreation of proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf
of Bothnia. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. ............................... 183
Figure 55. Prevalence of recreational boating activity within proposed energy areas in the Baltic
Sea based on an average of hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022 (EMODnet, 2022). ..... 185
Figure 56. Relative potential negative effect of energy areas on shipping in the Baltic Sea. Dark
color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. .......................................................... 188
Figure 57. Map showing proposed areas for energy extraction, use of commercial fishing and
national interest claims for commercial fishing in the Baltic Sea. ................................................ 190
Figure 58. Shows proposed areas for energy expansion as well as already established wind
farms in the Baltic Sea for neighbouring countries. ..................................................................... 193
Figure 59. Map showing distances between energy areas and urban areas in the marine spatial
plan area of Skagerrak/Kattegat. Source: Statistics Sweden, 2020. ........................................... 196
Figure 60. Potential negative effect on migratory birds of proposals for energy extraction areas in
Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. ................ 198
Figure 61. Potential negative effect on wintering areas for birds of proposals for energy extraction
areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. .. 199
Figure 62. Potential negative effect on bats of proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat.
Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. ................................................. 201
Figure 63. Potential negative effect of proposed energy areas on harbour porpoises in
Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. ................ 204
Figure 64. Potential negative effect of proposed energy areas on the benthic habitat in
Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark blue color shows medium effect and light green blue color shows little
effect. ............................................................................................................................................ 206
Figure 65. Potential positive local net effect of energy areas on the benthic habitat in
Skagerrak/Kattegat if energy use replaces bottom trawling. Dark color shows great effect and
light color shows little effect.......................................................................................................... 208
Figure 66. Potential negative effects on fish and fish spawning in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color
shows great effect and light color shows little effect. ................................................................... 210
Figure 67. Areas using nature (N) and decided on the respective proposals for new areas with
particular consideration to high nature values (n) in Skagerrak/Kattegat (Swedish Agency for
Marine and Water Management 2024c)....................................................................................... 213
Figure 68. Displays sampling stations for marine environmental monitoring as well as proposed
energy areas including the zero alternative. ................................................................................ 216
Figure 69. Potential negative effect on the landscape of proposed energy areas in
Skagerrak/Kattegat. In the energy areas, dark color shows great effect and light color shows little
effect. Accumulated visibility from land is shown over the sea and visibility of energy areas is
shown over land. .......................................................................................................................... 220
Figure 70. Potential indirect negative effect of energy areas on national interest claims for cultural
environment in Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little
effect. ............................................................................................................................................ 223
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Figure 71. Risk of impact on marine archaeological sites. .......................................................... 226
Figure 72. Indirect and direct negative impact on regional cultural heritage value areas. .......... 228
Figure 73. Map of energy areas in plan proposals, zero alternatives, initial planning basis, and
conditions for energy extraction based on wind and depth conditions. ....................................... 233
Figure 74. Distribution of areas for energy extraction (km2), average depth and foundation type.
...................................................................................................................................................... 236
Figure 75. Distribution of energy extraction areas (km2), territorial sea and exclusive economic
zone. ............................................................................................................................................. 237
Figure 76. Assumptions on connection bidding zones. ............................................................... 239
Figure 77. Potential negative effect on recreation of proposals for energy extraction areas in
Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. ................ 241
Figure 78. Prevalence of recreational boating activity within proposed energy areas in
Skagerrak/Kattegat based on an average of hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022 (Emodnet,
2022)............................................................................................................................................. 244
Figure 79. Relative potential negative effect of energy areas on shipping in Skagerrak/Kattegat.
Dark color shows great effect and light color shows little effect. ................................................. 250
Figure 80. The map shows proposed energy areas, use of commercial fishing and national
interest claims for commercial fishing in Skagerrak/Kattegat. The figure also shows the impact as
a percentage of the total annual landing value (Northern shrimp) per energy area. ................... 255
Figure 81. The map shows proposed energy areas, use of commercial fishing and national
interest claims for commercial fishing in Skagerrak/Kattegat. The figure also shows the impact as
a percentage of the total annual landing value (Norway lobster and fish) per energy area. ....... 256
Figure 82. Displaying the "Nature and Culture" assessment scenario, in this case the energy
areas identified by the impact assessment as having the greatest overall negative impact have
been removed. The overall negative impact on the values of nature and culture will be low. .... 264
Figure 83. If the assessment scenario "Shipping and commercial fishing" is shown, in this case
the energy areas identified by the impact assessment as having the greatest overall negative
impact have been removed. The overall negative impact on values for shipping and fishing will be
low. ............................................................................................................................................... 265
Figure 84. Map of proposed energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat and plans for energy expansion
in neighbouring countries. Source: EMODnet, 2022, Flanders Marine Institute, 2023. .............. 267
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List of tables
Table 1. Shows the type of direct and local impact from offshore wind power in different phases in
relation to the impact on population and health, as well as possible consideration measures. .... 32
Table 2. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the
impact on birds, as well as possible consideration measures. ...................................................... 34
Table 3. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the
impact on bats, as well as possible consideration measures. ....................................................... 35
Table 4. Shows the type of impacts from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the
impact on mammals, as well as possible consideration measures. .............................................. 37
Table 5. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the
impact on benthic habitats, as well as possible consideration measures. .................................... 40
Table 6. Shows the type of impacts from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to
impacts on fish and spawning areas, as well as possible consideration measures that can reduce
negative impacts and consequences. ............................................................................................ 43
Table 7. Shows potential impacts during different phases of offshore wind on different aspects
related to water, both in the short and long term, how these impacts may affect other assessment
aspects, as well as possible consideration measures. .................................................................. 47
Table 8. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in different phases in relation to the
landscape, as well as possible consideration measures for planning and planning that can reduce
negative effects and consequences. .............................................................................................. 59
Table 9. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in relation to the cultural
environment during different phases, as well as possible consideration measures for planning and
planning that can reduce negative effects and consequences. ..................................................... 64
Table 10. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in relation to recreation during
different phases, as well as possible consideration measures for planning and planning that can
reduce negative effects and consequences................................................................................... 72
Table 11. Shows the type of impact from offshore wind power in relation to defence during
different phases, as well as possible consideration measures that can reduce negative effects
and consequences. ........................................................................................................................ 77
Table 12. Shows the type of impacts from offshore wind in relation to shipping during different
phases, as well as possible consideration measures that can reduce negative impacts and
impacts. .......................................................................................................................................... 83
Table 13. Shows the type of impacts from offshore wind power in relation to commercial fishing
during different phases, as well as possible consideration measures that can reduce negative
impacts and impacts....................................................................................................................... 87
Table 14. Shows results of calculation for potential climate benefit as offshore wind power
according to the plan proposal, the zero alternative and the current situation in the Gulf of Bothnia
would replace the Nordic residual mix. ........................................................................................ 110
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Table 15. Number of recorded marine archaeological sites per energy area in the Gulf of Bothnia.
Source: The Swedish National Heritage Board's Cultural Environment Register
(Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.y.). .................................................................................................... 121
Table 16. Shows cumulative effects in the Gulf of Bothnia from energy areas on national interest
claims for cultural environment conservation and marine value areas, based on the number of
cultural environments affected, as well as its proximity. The higher the cumulative impact. The
method is described in Chapter 8. ............................................................................................... 125
Table 17. Grouping, for wind speed and depth indicators. .......................................................... 128
Table 18. Plan proposal Gulf of Bothnia. Overview of guidance on energy extraction, location and
conditions...................................................................................................................................... 130
Table 19. Estimated area for energy extraction in plan proposals, zero alternatives, public interest
of substantial importance, national interest claims and adopted marine spatial plan (Government,
2022)............................................................................................................................................. 133
Table 20. Prevalence of recreational boating activity in proposed energy areas in the Gulf of
Bothnia based on an average of hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022. The data is based on
activity from at least one leisure boat in the energy field (Emodnet, 2022). ................................ 140
Table 21. Landing value from Swedish fisheries affected by energy areas in millions of SEK (mkr)
and percentage (%) of total landing value, for the Gulf of Bothnia. Annual averages 2013-2023.
...................................................................................................................................................... 148
Table 22. Impact on reindeer husbandry in different phases, as well as possible consideration
measures. ..................................................................................................................................... 152
Table 23. The table shows, in colour scale, assessments for all assessment aspects that have
potential adverse effects. The table also shows a column where the values have been
summarised, both in total and by nature and ecological aspects, maritime transport and
commercial fisheries. .................................................................................................................... 155
Table 24. Shows results of calculation for potential climate benefit when offshore wind power
replaces the Nordic residual mix according to plan proposals, zero alternatives and the current
situation in the Baltic Sea. ............................................................................................................ 168
Table 25.Guidance energy extraction, plan proposal Baltic Sea, total area, as well as area within
territorial sea and foundations. ..................................................................................................... 180
Table 26. Guidance on energy extraction, estimation of production potential, based on marine
spatial plans, zero alternatives, national interest claims and public interest of substantial
importance. ................................................................................................................................... 181
Table 27. Shows results of calculation for potential climate benefit when offshore wind power
replaces fossil in the Nordic residual mix according to plan proposals, zero alternatives and
current situation in Skagerrak/Kattegat. ....................................................................................... 218
Table 28. Number of recorded marine archaeological sites per energy area in
Skagerrak/Kattegat. Source: The Swedish National Heritage Board's Cultural Environment
Register (Riksantikvarieämbetetet, u.y.). ..................................................................................... 227
Table 29. Cumulative effects in Skagerrak/Kattegat from energy areas on national interest claims
for cultural conservation and marine value areas, based on the number of cultural environments
- 323 -
affected, as well as its proximity. The higher the value, the higher the cumulative impact. The
method is described in the method section Chapter 8................................................................. 231
Table 30. Grouping, for the wind speed and depth indicators. .................................................... 234
Table 31. Plan proposal Skagerrak/Kattegat. Overview of guidance on energy extraction, location
and conditions. ............................................................................................................................. 235
Table 32. Energy extraction guidance, baseline/permitted. ......................................................... 237
Table 33. Estimated area for energy extraction in plan proposals, zero alternatives, public interest
of substantial importance, national interest claims and adopted marine spatial plan (Government,
2022)............................................................................................................................................. 238
Table 34. Prevalence of recreational boating activity in proposed energy areas in
Skagerrak/Kattegat based on an average of hours per month in the years 2017 – 2022. The data
is based on activity from at least one leisure boat in the energy field (Emodnet, 2022). ............ 245
Table 35. Energy areas with authorised wind farms. ................................................................... 248
Table 36. Landing value from Swedish fisheries affected by energy areas in SEK million (SEK
million) and percentage (%) of total landing value, for Skagerrak/Kattegat. Average per year
2013-2023. Rounding has taken place to the nearest integer. .................................................... 253
Table 37. Shows all assessments for energy areas in Skagerrak/Kattegat, and how these can be
aggregated and show the total negative effects of an energy area. ............................................ 262
Table 38. Overall assessment for plankton communities and pelagic habitats. HMD: Marine
Environment Directive, RDV: Water Framework Directive. ......................................................... 269
Table 39. Overall assessment for fish. HMD: Marine Environment Directive, RDV: Water
Framework Directive. (*) Associated indicator refers to carp and predatory fish in coastal waters.
...................................................................................................................................................... 270
Table 40. Overall assessment for birds. HMD: Marine Environment Directive, RDV: Water
Framework Directive. ................................................................................................................... 272
Table 41. Overall assessment for marine mammals. HMD: Marine Environment Directive, RDV:
Water Framework Directive. (*) Associated indicator concerns by-catch of harbour porpoises; (**)
Related indicators relate to the gestation rate and the blubber thickness of grey seals; (***)
Related indicators relate to the distribution of grey seals, harbour seals and ringed seals; (****)
Associated indicators refer to abundance and trends of grey, harbour and ringed seals). ......... 273
Table 42. Overall assessment for benthic habitats. HMD: Marine Environment Directive, RDV:
Water Framework Directive. (*) Relevant indicators include bottom fauna in coastal waters (5.8A)
and bottom fauna in offshore waters (5.8B). ................................................................................ 274
Table 43. Overall assessment for hydrographic conditions. HMD: Marine Environment Directive,
RDV: Water Framework Directive. ............................................................................................... 275
Table 44. Overall assessment for underwater noise. HMD: Marine Environment Directive, RDV:
Water Framework Directive. ......................................................................................................... 276
Table 45. Overall assessment for non-indigenous species. ........................................................ 278
Table 46. Summary of the contribution of marine spatial plans to the achievement of Sweden's
environmental objectives. ............................................................................................................. 278
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Table 47. The impact of marine spatial plans on national strategy priorities for regional
development, related to marine spatial planning objectives and governance documents. ......... 281
Table 48. Shows an overview of how the guidance in the marine spatial plan affects ecosystem
services......................................................................................................................................... 285
Table 49. Shows an overview of how the guidance in the marine spatial plan affects ecosystem
services......................................................................................................................................... 286
Table 50. Consideration measures applied in the establishment of offshore wind energy. Based
on a compilation prepared for the OSPAR group on offshore renewable energy development,
ICG-ORED. Damage mitigation comprises the following four types of actions accordi .............. 289
Table 51. Assessment aspects used in the impact assessment. ................................................ 293
Table 52. Example of the method for assessing cumulative effects of energy areas on cultural
environments. ............................................................................................................................... 299
Table 53. Grouping for wind speed and depth criteria. ................................................................ 300
Table 54. Examples of criteria assessment, summation and grouping. ...................................... 301
- 325 -
Annex A Summary of measures in the environmental
impact assessment of the adopted marine
spatial plan
Habitat loss to marine mammals and seabirds due to disturbance in the
Environmental
construction and operation of offshore wind energy, respectively, and
impact
operation of sand extraction activities
Descriptor D1 – Biodiversity
Biodiversity is preserved. The quality and abundance of habitats and the
distribution and abundance of species are consistent with prevailing
geomorphological, geographical and climatic conditions.
Criterion D1C2 - Abundance of species of birds, mammals and fish
Indicator 1.2A — Seabird Breeding Abundance
Criteria and Indicator 1.2B — Abundance of wintering seabirds
indicators Indicator 1.2C – Grey seal abundance and trends
concerned Indicator 1.2D — Harbour seal abundance and trends
Indicator 1.2E – Ringed seal abundance and trends
Criterion D1C4 — Species distribution
Indicator 1.4A — Grey seal distribution
Indicator 1.4B — Harbour seal distribution
Indicator 1.4C — Prevalence of ringed seals
Lack of relevant indicators for harbour porpoises
Relevant measures are primarily administrative instruments linked to the regulatory
framework for the licensing of water operations under Chapters 9 and 11 of the
Environmental Code. In connection with this, conditions for the reduction of
disturbance to different species can be established. There is currently no guidance
on how offshore wind and sand extraction should be designed to minimise the risk
of disturbance, and how different solutions should be tested. Among other things,
there are no limit values for what constitutes reasonable disturbance for different
species or groups of species, both during construction, as well as during operation
and felling. There is also disagreement about the ability of protective measures to
Measures to
minimise pressures to reasonable levels.
prevent, deter,
Knowledge-building measures under, inter alia, the Vindval Programme and Action
counteract or
25 under the Marine Environment Action Programme are relevant in this context.
remedy
adverse
Other relevant existing measures include:
environmental
- The Species Protection Ordinance (2007:845), which implements Council
effects
Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats
and of wild fauna and flora, and Directive 2009/147/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2009 on the conservation of
wild birds.
- Programme of Action for Endangered Species. There are currently no specific
programmes for endangered seabird species. There is an action programme
for harbour porpoises from 2013, which focuses on minimising by-catch,
inventories and mapping of populations, the underwater noise problem and
area protection. The program is under update.
- 326 -
Habitat loss to marine mammals and seabirds due to disturbance in the
Environmental
construction and operation of offshore wind energy, respectively, and
impact
operation of sand extraction activities
In the framework of the present environmental assessment, a measure was tested
to minimise the risk of wind power establishment at Södra Midsjöbanken for
benthic foraging seabirds, with a particular focus on alder birds. The measure
involves the relocation of the wind farm to nearby areas deeper than 30m.
Modelling in Symphony shows a significant reduction in the impact on seabirds. At
the same time, the measure means that the wind farm is located within the
boundaries of the Natura 2000 site.
Seabird monitoring programme
Monitoring of breeding and wintering birds along the coast and offshoreaims to
monitor stock trends over time, which can be affected by changing conditions in
the food web but also by direct impacts arising from a variety of human activities.
The data collected includes:
Wintering seabirds (coastal and offshore)
- Number of wintering seabirds within counting units along the coast or along air
transects in the lake (see methods)
- Geographical distribution can be partly assessed on the basis of population
size
Breeding seabirds
- Abundance and distribution of different seabird species along the Swedish
coast
- Number and size of mainly Eider cubs (indirect measure of young age)
Details of the programme can be found at
https://www.havochvatten.se/sea/coordination--
facts/miljoovervakning/remissversion-for-overvakning-i-marin-miljo/marin-
Monitoring miljoovervakning/sjofaglar.html
and
surveillance Seal monitoring programme
The purpose of seal monitoring is to study long-term trends in the marine
environment resulting from anthropogenic pressures by documenting the evolution
of seal populations. The following data are collected via sample measurements:
- population growth rate (%)
- population size (number of seals)
- distribution of grey seals during the fur change period in May
- propagation of harbour seals during the fur change period in August
- the spread of ringed seals during ice-laying in the Gulf of Bothnia in April.
Details of the programme can be found at
https://www.havochvatten.se/hav/coordination--
facts/miljoovervakning/remissversion-for-overvakning-i-marin-miljo/marin-
miljoovervakning/sal.html.
Monitoring programme for harbour porpoises
The purpose of the monitoring is to monitor trends in abundance and population
growth of harbour porpoises in Swedish waters. Threats to harbour porpoises
include, in particular, increased mortality through by-catches in fisheries,
- 327 -
Habitat loss to marine mammals and seabirds due to disturbance in the
Environmental
construction and operation of offshore wind energy, respectively, and
impact
operation of sand extraction activities
environmental toxins, reduced food availability due to overfishing, and habitat loss,
mainly due to noise disturbance. The survey measures:
- Relative density and distribution of harbour porpoises in the surveyed area
- Population growth rate (%)
- Population size (number of harbour porpoises per square kilometre)
- Health and disease surveillance
Details of the programme can be found at
https://www.havochvatten.se/sea/coordination--
facts/miljoovervakning/remissversion-for-overvakning-i-marin-miljo/marin-
miljoovervakning/tumlare.html
Environmental Physical damage to marine mammals caused by impulsive underwater noise
impact
Environmental quality standard E.2
Human activities shall not cause harmful impulsive noise in the ranges of marine
mammals during periods where animals are susceptible to disturbance.
Descriptor D1 – Biodiversity
Criteria and Biodiversity is preserved. The quality and abundance of habitats and the
indicators distribution and abundance of species are consistent with prevailing
concerned geomorphological, geographical and climatic conditions.
Criterion D1C4 — Species distribution
Indicator 1.4A — Grey seal distribution
Indicator 1.4B — Harbour seal distribution
Indicator 1.4C — Prevalence of ringed seals
Lack of relevant indicators for harbour porpoises
The environmental impact is strongly associated with the risk of habitat loss for
marine mammals described above. The effect is particularly significant for harbour
porpoises due to their sensitivity to underwater noise and dependence on
echolocation for survival. The effect is to some extent also relevant for seals.
Activities in Swedish waters that primarily cause potentially harmful impulsive noise
include:
Measures to - piling and blasting in offshore wind energy construction
prevent, deter, - piling for transport infrastructure
counteract or - explosives in connection with military operations
remedy - laying of electricity and communication lines
adverse - seabed seismological surveys
environmental
effects Water operations that risk adversely affecting people or the environment require a
permit under the Environmental Code and are subject to review by the Land and
Environment Court. The main impact minimisation measures are set out in the
authorisation procedure in the form of operational conditions, which usually include
provisions on when and where activities may be carried out, and the application of
protective measures. In this way, the risk of injury is minimized by scaring the
animals away from the area, reducing the noise level or avoiding periods where the
- 328 -
Environmental Physical damage to marine mammals caused by impulsive underwater noise
impact
animals are particularly sensitive to disturbance, e.g. the calving period. Examples
of risk mitigation measures include: (Nordzell et al., 2019):
- choice of season for installation
- gradual increase in piling strength
- use of harbour porpoises and seal frights
- the use of noise abatement methods, namely bubble curtains, various forms of
protective jackets, caisson techniques or screens of gas-filled balloons.
The effects of the application of noise minimisation measures in the construction of
wind farms in Germany have recently been published and constitute an important
basis for installations in Swedish waters, where similar studies do not exist (Brandt
et al., 2018; Rose et al., 2019).
Within the framework of the Vindval programme, documentation and guidance
were produced on the regulation of underwater noise during piling (Andersson et
al., 2016), which among other things indicates proposals for noise levels that can
cause hearing damage in harbour porpoises. At the Swedish Agency for Marine
and Water Management, work is underway to develop uniform guidance for
underwater noise that covers activities other than wind power alone.
Relevant policy actions include the work of thematic expert groups at EU level, or
under OSPAR and HELCOM for Skagerrak/Kattegat and the Baltic Sea
respectively1. In Sweden, a national reference group for underwater noise was
initiated in 2015 with the task of developing national limit values for the impact of
human-induced underwater noise. The aim is for these limit values to be used in
permit applications and impact assessments.
Impulsive underwater noise monitoring programme
The purpose of the program is to map the extent of noisy activities in time and
space to get a picture of the accumulated sound environment in the sea and be
able to prevent too many high impulsive sounds from occurring simultaneously in
one area.
Information reported within the programme includes:
- Type of activity
- Position (coordinates orICES statistical subrectangles)
- Proxy for source strength (noise level)
Monitoring
- Start and end dates
and
- Existence of noise abatement measure
surveillance
Details of the programme can be found at
https://www.havochvatten.se/sea/coordination--
facts/miljoovervakning/remissversion-for-surveillance-in-marine-miljo/marine-
miljoovervakning/impulsive-underwater noise.html.
Seal monitoring programme
See above
Monitoring programme for harbour porpoises
1
MSFD Common Implementation Strategy Technical Group on Underwater Noise (TG-NOISE); OSPAR Intersessional
Correspondence Group on Underwater Noise (ICG Noise); HELCOM Expert Network on Underwater Noise (EN-Noise).
- 329 -
Environmental Physical damage to marine mammals caused by impulsive underwater noise
impact
See above
Environmental Habitat loss and reduced reproductive capacity of fish due to physical
impact disturbance in the operation of sand extraction activities
Environmental quality standard D.3
Permanent changes in hydrographical conditions due to large-scale activities,
individual or cooperative, shall not adversely affect biodiversity and ecosystems.
Descriptor D6 - Seabed integrity
The integrity of the seabed is maintained at a level that ensures that the structure
and functions of ecosystems are safeguarded and that benthic ecosystems in
particular are not adversely affected.
Criterion D6C3 – Extent of physical disturbance of benthic habitats
Indicator 6.3A – Extent of physical disturbance in benthic habitats
Criterion D6C5 — Extent of adverse effects of human pressures
Indicator 5.8B – Bottom fauna in effluent waters
Descriptor D7 - Permanent changes in hydrographic conditions
The descriptor currently lacks specific criteria and indicators.
Criteria and
indicators Environmental quality standard C.3
concerned Populations of all naturally occurring fish species and shellfish affected by fishing
have an age and size structure as well as stock size that ensures their long-term
sustainability.
Descriptor D1 – Biodiversity
Biodiversity is preserved. The quality and abundance of habitats and the
distribution and abundance of species are consistent with prevailing
geomorphological, geographical and climatic conditions.
Criterion D1C2 — Abundance of species of birds, mammals and fish
Indicator 1.2H — Spawning biomass of pelagic and demersal fish species
Descriptor D3 – Commercially exploited fish and shellfish
Populations of all commercially exploited fish and shellfish are within safe
biological limits and show an age and size distribution that indicates a healthy
stock.
Criterion D3C2 — Spawning stock biomass of commercially exploited species
Indicator 3.2A — Spawning stock biomass for commercially exploited populations
The environmental impact is mainly caused by increased sediment dispersion and
Measures to
changes in bottom conditions within and in the vicinity of the areas where marine
prevent, deter,
spatial plans indicate the use of sand extraction. Hydrographic conditions that are
counteract or
assumed to change are turbidity and depth conditions, as well as possible currents
remedy
in the immediate area. The risk of such changes may be high during sand
adverse
extraction, depending on the sediment type and dynamics, as well as on the extent
environmental
and duration of the activity. These aspects determine whether the changes will be
effects
permanent or not. In the case of offshore wind energy, the risk of significant and
- 330 -
Environmental Habitat loss and reduced reproductive capacity of fish due to physical
impact disturbance in the operation of sand extraction activities
long-term impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems is usually assessed as
negligible. However, the risk and possible harm minimisation measures still need
to be investigated and tested. Changes that occur only during the construction or
harvesting phases are usually not counted as permanent, which is however the
case for the changes caused by the wind turbine foundations themselves during
the operation phase.
The risk of loss of fish habitats is similar to that of other marine species, namely
harbour porpoises and seals, as described above. Changes in bottom structure
and dynamics can make habitats unsuitable for certain species, while greater
human presence can scare away animals. Sediment extraction can be directly
detrimental to species laying eggs on bottom substrates, while increased sediment
dispersion can interfere with reproductive capacity of species with pelagic egg and
larval stages.
Measures to maintain good environmental status with regard to hydrographic
conditions fall mainly within the scope of the permit assessment. These are
administrative instruments linked to various laws and the Ordinance, namely the
Environmental Code. It is important that the basis for decisions is available for the
assessment of activities and measures. There is usually a requirement for an
environmental impact assessment, which should account for the activity's impact
on hydrographic conditions. Environmental impact assessment in permit
assessment under Chapter 9 and Chapter 11 of the Environmental Code is
considered to be the main instrument for ensuring that infrastructure or other
activities offshore do not deteriorate the status of environmental quality standard
D.3 (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2015c).
Under the Marine Environment Action Programme 2016-2021, a measure (ÅPH
13) was proposed to develop guidance to strengthen descriptions of
hydrographical changes and how these affect marine ecosystems. Within the same
programme of measures, there are a number of other measures to develop
guidance or policies on various aspects related to the integrity and restoration of
benthic habitats that are relevant for compliance with EQS D.3.
Measures against adverse effects on fish in terms of habitat loss caused by
physical disturbance are largely of the same nature as for habitat loss for marine
mammals and birds, as described above. It is primarily about administrative
instruments that are determined within the framework of the permit assessment
process.
Most existing measures related specifically to fish are targeted at fisheries, which
are considered to be the main cause of changes in fish stocks and communities,
despite several other pressures in the marine environment (Swedish Agency for
Marine and Water Management, 2015c). Such measures fall within the scope of
the EU Common Fisheries Policy and national fisheries regulations, respectively,
and are not directly relevant to disturbance caused by new constructions or
activities. In comparison, measures related to conditions for construction in the
water or planning and operation of water operations are generally considered to
have significantly lower potential impact to achieve good environmental status
(Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, 2015c). However, in the
- 331 -
Environmental Habitat loss and reduced reproductive capacity of fish due to physical
impact disturbance in the operation of sand extraction activities
context of specific projects, such measures can be instrumental in minimising the
risk of harm, by, for example, avoiding disruption during biologically sensitive
periods.
Monitoring of hydrographic conditions
Monitoring of hydrographic conditions is part of five different monitoring
programmes, two of which measure hydrographic characteristics (physical
characteristics such as temperature and salt, and hydrological characteristics such
as currents, waves and water levels), and three monitor human pressures and their
effects, namely:
- effects of cooling water;
- physical impact
- benthic habitats.
The latter two programmes are relevant to the effects described above, which are
expected to result from the application of the marine spatial plans. These two
programmes are currently under development. Data from both programs need to
be combined to assess the possible impact of physical disturbance on habitats. It
is anticipated that the following data will need to be collected under these two
programmes:
Physical impact:
- bottom trawling data
- data from environmental impact assessments;
- aerial imagery and satellite data
Monitoring
For each activity or design, the following data are collected:
and
- timing
surveillance
- geographical location
- area/length
- relative impact in terms of hydrological quality elements
- general wave regime around the phenomenon and how it is affected
- bottom substrates affected and affecting the surrounding area
- depth effect
- zoning of intensity
- intensity of pressure
Details of the programme can be found at
https://www.havochvatten.se/sea/coordination--facts/miljoovervakning/marin-
miljoovervakning/physical-paverkan.html.
Benthic environments
Geographical distribution of habitat types and habitats and areas of occurrence:
- Distribution area and area covered by habitat types and habitats
- Structures (of habitat types and habitats) that can be defined spatially
Quality of habitat types and habitats:
- biotic and abiotic structures (e.g. presence of vegetation)
- ecological functions (e.g. typical species composition, species size and/or age
structure, etc.)
- 332 -
Environmental Habitat loss and reduced reproductive capacity of fish due to physical
impact disturbance in the operation of sand extraction activities
Details of the programme can be found
athttps://www.havochvatten.se/sea/coordination--facts/miljoovervakning/marin-
miljoovervakning/bentiska-livsmiljoer.html
Monitoring programme for inshore and offshore fish
The main purpose of these two programmes is to follow up changes in the number
and size structure of the most common species commercially exploited. The
programmes thus have a significant focus on fisheries and their impact on stocks.
Data collected within the programmes is also used to assess the status of the
ecosystem. Data from the offshore fish monitoring are coordinated between
different countries and are used in the work to produce data for fishing quotas.
The programmes have no particular focus on how fish stocks, fish reproductive
capacity or spawning stocks are affected by physical disturbance. Nevertheless,
monitoring data form the basis for permit assessments, including spawning stock
assessments, which in turn are necessary to estimate and compare the effects of
new constructions or activities. Where a certain water activity is considered to have
negative effects on fish, spawning habitats and reproductive capacity, a control
programme shall be developed to monitor these aspects.
Environmental Loss of benthic habitats in the construction and operation of offshore wind
impact energy, as well as operation of sand extraction activities
Environmental quality standard D.1
The area of the seabed unaffected by human activity must be large enough to
maintain the structure and function of the seabed for each habitat type.
Environmental quality standard D.2
The area of biogenic substrates shall be maintained or increased.
Criteria and
indicators Descriptor D6 - Seabed integrity
concerned The integrity of the seabed is maintained at a level that ensures that the structure
and functions of ecosystems are safeguarded and that benthic ecosystems in
particular are not adversely affected.
Criterion D6C3 – Extent of physical disturbance of benthic habitats
Indicator 6.3A – Extent of physical disturbance in benthic habitats
Criterion D6C5 — Extent of adverse effects of human pressures
Indicator 5.8B – Bottom fauna in effluent waters
Most existing seabed integrity measures address the impact of bottom trawling on
Measures to benthic habitats. Despite numerous other pressures affecting the seabed, bottom
prevent, deter, trawling for fish is considered to be the predominant activity in the seabed causing
counteract or negative physical impacts on the seabed. This is particularly true in
remedy Skagerrak/Kattegat, while in the Baltic the impact of trawl fishing on the integrity of
adverse the seabed is less extensive (Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management,
environmental 2015c). Existing measures include area-specific regulations to reduce the impact
effects of trawl fishing within existing protected areas, the relocation of the trawl border on
the west coast, fishing regulations to protect the integrity of the seabed under the
- 333 -
Environmental Loss of benthic habitats in the construction and operation of offshore wind
impact energy, as well as operation of sand extraction activities
Fisheries Act and Fisheries Ordinance, and the establishment of protected areas,
including biotope protection areas.
The establishment of protected areas may also be relevant as a preventive
measure for protection against other pressures likely to affect the seabed,
including wind energy installation and material extraction. In this context, the
measure can be used to prohibit or limit anthropogenic pressures in order to
preserve the seabed, and opens up the possibility of requiring restoration and
compensation measures within protection plans for certain types of protected
areas.
For specific water operations such as offshore wind power and material extraction,
the conditions determined in the framework of permit procedures under the
Environmental Code are most important in order to minimise the risk of negative
impacts on the integrity of the seabed (see above). An important aspect is the
threshold for what is considered to be acceptable disturbance or damage to the
integrity of the seabed, which is currently undetermined. This relates to knowledge
about the distribution of the different habitat types and what different degrees and
types of human influence mean for the structure and function of benthic
ecosystems. Such knowledge is also necessary to be able to assess the form and
extent of possible future restoration and compensation in the event of loss of
natural bottom habitat. Such measures are currently not applied in the sea. Within
the action programme for the marine environment 2016-2020, action ÅPH 25 was
developed, aimed at, among other things, building up knowledge about mussel
banks in the Baltic Sea, physical impact on deep soft bottoms, reef environments
and shallow gravel bottoms in Skagerrak/Kattegat (Swedish Agency for Marine and
Water Management, 2015c).
Physical impact monitoring programme
See above, under Monitoring programme for hydrographic conditions.
Today, different types of data are collected that could be used for estimating the
physical impact of different human activities. However, there is a lack of an overall
strategy for the use of data in assessments. Methods for both monitoring and
assessment are under development. In the case of individual projects, such
methods are usually developed within the framework of the project's control
programme.
Monitoring Monitoring programme for benthic habitats
and The monitoring is part of the following six different monitoring programmes, the first
surveillance two of which are relevant to the environmental impact in question, while they are
currently under development.
- benthic habitats
- physical impact (see above)
- larger animals on the seabed
- sediment-dwelling macrofauna
- vegetation-covered bottoms
- chemical properties of water (oxygen and pH)
For benthic habitats see above under Monitoring programme for hydrographic
conditions.
- 334 -
Environmental Loss of benthic habitats in the construction and operation of offshore wind
impact energy, as well as operation of sand extraction activities
Large-scale national marine mappings of Sweden's marine areas have been
carried out since 2016, with the aim of improving knowledge of benthic marine
habitats. Monitoring is also being developed to monitor the condition of benthic
habitats on an ongoing basis, as well as the extent of human activities and their
adverse effects on habitats. Innovative monitoring methods are now being
developed, where shallow ground environments will be monitored by satellite and
validated with adapted monitoring locally. However, reliable comprehensive
monitoring of benthic habitats in deeper areas continues to require a
comprehensive mapping effort, in particular to generate sufficiently accurate data
on depth and substrates. In parallel, there is also the development of physical
impact monitoring, using aerial image interpretation and impact models.
- 335 -
We work for living seas and water
The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management (SwAM) is a state administrative authority
in the environmental field. We work on behalf of the Government for the conservation, restoration
and sustainable use of lakes, watercourses, seas and fish resources.
Proposal for amended marine spatial plans for
the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and
Skagerrak/Kattegat
Proposal (ref. no. 00764–2022)
2025-01-20
Proposal for amended marine spatial plans for
the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and
Skagerrak/Kattegat
Proposal (ref. 00764-2022)
ii
Proposals for amended marine spatial plans
Marine spatial planning is one of our most important tools for achieving the long-term sustainable
development of our seas. The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management has drawn up
proposals for amended marine spatial plans for the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and the
Skagerrak/Kattegat, together with an impact assessment, through broad dialogue and
collaboration with many different stakeholders. Two formal consultations have been carried out,
consultations in autumn 2023 and a review in spring-summer 2024. Consultations on
transboundary environmental impacts have also been carried out. A large number of comments
have been received which have formed the basis for the development of the proposal. The
proposal includes a consultation report in which all comments received from the review are
answered.
The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management has drawn up the proposal within the
scope of a government assignment on new or amended areas for energy extraction in marine
spatial plans. The objective is to enable an additional 90 terawatt hours of annual electricity
production at sea in addition to the planning in the current marine spatial plans (M2022/00276).
The total target is 120 terawatt hours. The guidance on the use energy extraction in the marine
spatial plans refers to offshore wind energy.
The starting point for planning for offshore wind energy has primarily been the report Proposals
for suitable energy extraction areas in the marine spatial plans . (Energimyndigheten 2023) While
the objective of enabling offshore wind energy has been an important starting point for the revised
marine spatial plans, the planning encompasses many different values and interests with the
overall aim of contributing to long-term sustainable development. The marine spatial plans shall
contribute to achieving and maintaining good environmental status in the marine environment
while using marine resources sustainably in order to develop marine industries.
Environmental, economic and social impacts are summarised in the plan proposal and presented
in more detail in the document Impact assessment of proposals for amended marine spatial plans
for the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and the Skagerrak/Kattegat. Dnr 0764-2022.
Gothenburg, January 2025
Anna Ledin
Director-General
iii
Summary
The Government decides on three marine spatial plans – one for the Gulf of Bothnia, one for the
Baltic Sea and one for the Skagerrak/Kattegat. The marine spatial plans provide guidance on the
most suitable use of the sea. The marine spatial plans guide authorities, regions and
municipalities in future decisions, planning and permit applications. Traders are also expected to
be guided by the plans.
The marine spatial plans shall contribute to long-term sustainable development. They shall
reconcile industrial policy objectives, social objectives and environmental objectives. The marine
spatial plans shall contribute to achieving and maintaining good environmental status in the
marine environment while using marine resources sustainably in order to develop marine
industries.
The marine spatial plans provide guidance on the most suitable use. The use(s) specified in an
area takes priority over other uses. In large parts of the sea, different uses can coexist if they
adapt to each other. The marine spatial plans provide guidance on which use(s) take priority and
which adaptation is needed. The marine spatial plans include ten uses:
• electricity transmission
• energy extraction
• recreation
• defence
• general use
• cultural environment
• nature
• sand extraction
• shipping
• commercial fishing;
The marine spatial plans also include investigation areas and areas where particular
consideration should be given to the interests of total defence, to high cultural heritage values or
to high nature values.
All sea uses are based on a suitability assessment based on location, characteristics of the
location and needs. National and other public interests are taken into account in the assessment.
The consequences of marine spatial plans assessed from ecological, economic and social
perspectives are summarised in the plan proposal, but presented in more detail in the document
Impact assessment of proposals for amended marine spatial plans for the Gulf of Bothnia, the
Baltic Sea and the Skagerrak/Kattegat ref.no. 0764-2022.
iv
Marine spatial planning is based on laws, regulations and societal goals, and is based on
evidence-based knowledge and the dialogue conducted with relevant stakeholders in the various
stages of the planning process. Marine spatial planning also identifies the need for developed
knowledge bases.
v
Reading instructions
You can read the plans as a document, but there is also a web map tool available including some
of the information. The web maps are clickable and searchable, and can be zoomed in. The maps
also include planning evidence.
www.havochvatten.se.
How the document is structured
The document is divided into seven parts and an annex. Part 1 is a background description on
MSP. Part 2 is common to all three marine spatial plans and provides overall guidance and
considerations. The same applies to part 6 on implications and consequences and part 7 with
references and lists. Parts 3, 4 and 5 contain guidance and considerations for each marine spatial
plan, i.e., for the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and the Skagerrak/Kattegat. The annex contains
planning conditions for all marine spatial plans. The annex is available in Swedish.
vi
Content
Proposals for amended marine spatial plans ................................................................................... iii
Summary .......................................................................................................................................... iv
1. About marine spatial plans and the marine spatial planning process ...................................... 1
1.1. Preparing proposals for marine spatial plans ........................................................................... 1
1.2. Marine spatial plans and their application ................................................................................ 1
1.3. Marine spatial planning process ............................................................................................... 7
1.4. Vision and goals ...................................................................................................................... 11
2. Overall guidance on use and coexistence .............................................................................. 17
2.1. Principles for the assessment of the most suitable use and particular consideration ............ 17
2.2. Plan maps presentation .......................................................................................................... 19
2.3. Guidance on the most suitable use and particular consideration........................................... 22
2.4. Guidance on coexistence........................................................................................................ 39
3. Gulf of Bothnia: Guidance and considerations ....................................................................... 47
3.1. Bothnian bay ........................................................................................................................... 51
3.2. Northern Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken ............................................................................ 60
3.3. Southern Bothnian Sea ........................................................................................................... 66
4. Baltic Sea: Guidance and considerations ............................................................................... 77
4.1. Northern Baltic and South Kvarken ........................................................................................ 81
4.2. Central Baltic Sea ................................................................................................................... 89
4.3. South-Eastern Baltic Sea ........................................................................................................ 97
4.4. Southern Baltic Sea .............................................................................................................. 105
4.5. South-West Baltic Sea and Öresund .................................................................................... 111
5. Skagerrak and Kattegat: Guidance and considerations ....................................................... 120
5.1. Skagerrak .............................................................................................................................. 124
5.2. Kattegat ................................................................................................................................. 133
6. Implication and consequences.............................................................................................. 143
6.1. Implication ............................................................................................................................. 143
6.2. Consequences ...................................................................................................................... 149
7. References and lists.............................................................................................................. 154
vii
1. About marine spatial plans and the marine spatial
planning process
1.1. Preparing proposals for marine spatial plans
On 10 February 2022, the Government adopted Sweden’s first marine spatial plans for the Gulf of
Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and the Skagerrak/Kattegat. In connection with the decision on the marine
spatial plans, the Government also decided on a new assignment. The mission aims to develop
new areas for energy extraction in the marine spatial plans to enable energy extraction at sea
with an additional 90 terawatt hours of annual electricity production, in addition to the areas
included in the adopted marine spatial plans (M2022/00276).
A first part of the assignment relating to documentation for new or changed areas for offshore
energy extraction was delivered on 31 March 2023 by the Swedish Energy Agency
(Energimyndigheten 2023). The development of the data was coordinated by the Swedish Energy
Agency and was produced together with the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management,
Svenska kraftnät, the Swedish Armed Forces, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, the
Swedish National Heritage Board, the Swedish Maritime Administration, the Swedish Board of
Agriculture and the Geological Survey of Sweden. The report is available on the Swedish Energy
Agency's website.
The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management and the Swedish Energy Agency have
in parallel had a related government assignment that produced a knowledge compilation on the
possibilities and conditions for coexistence between offshore wind energy, commercial fishing,
aquaculture and nature conservation. The assignment was reported on 28 February 2023 (Havs-
och vattenmyndigheten 2023).
1.2. Marine spatial plans and their application
The purpose of marine spatial plans is to contribute to long-term sustainable development. The
marine spatial plans provide guidance for the areas covered by a marine spatial plan to be used
for the purpose or purposes for which they are most suitable.
National marine spatial planning is regulated in Chapter 4, Section 10 of the Environmental Code
(1988:808) and the Marine Spatial Planning Ordinance (2015:400). Through this legislation,
Sweden has also transposed the EU Marine Spatial Planning Directive (2014/89).
Overall
The national marine spatial plan includes three marine spatial plans – one for the Gulf of Bothnia,
one for the Baltic Sea and one for the Skagerrak/Kattegat. The marine spatial plans cover
Sweden’s exclusive economic zone and public waters in the Swedish territorial sea from a
1
nautical mile beyond the baseline referred to in the Act (2017:1272) on Swedish Maritime
Territory and Maritime Zones.
Figure 1.2-1 The three marine spatial plans
The marine spatial plans adopted by the Government provide guidance to authorities, regions
and municipalities when planning and examining claims for the use of areas in the sea. The
Government may issue regulations on such prohibitions or restrictions on activities and measures
within a marine spatial plan area as are necessary to achieve the purpose of the plan.
A marine spatial plan provides guidance on the use of the areas covered by the marine spatial
plan, for the purpose or purposes for which the areas are most suitable in view of their nature,
location and the needs of society.
The purpose of marine spatial plans is to contribute to long-term sustainable development. The
marine spatial plans combine economic, social and environmental objectives and contribute to:
• good environmental status of the marine environment is achieved and maintained
• the sustainable use of marine resources for the development of marine industries
• coexistence is promoted between different activities and uses
In the process of developing marine spatial plans, an ecosystem approach shall be applied.
2
According to the Marine spatial planning ordinance (2015:400), the Agency for Marine and Water
Management must keep up to date with developments in the areas concerned and, if necessary,
or at least every eight years, prepare revised proposals for marine spatial plans.
Marine spatial plans provide guidance at a strategic level
The marine spatial plan expresses the state's overall view of how marine areas should be
managed. In accordance with the Marine Spatial Planning Ordinance, the marine spatial plan sets
out the direction for the use of the marine area and sets out and describes national interest claims
under Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code and other public interests of substantial significance
The marine spatial plan also sets out how coexistence should work and how issues of
incompatible uses should be resolved. Unlike the sectoral authorities' documentation and claims,
such as national interest claims under Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code, the marine spatial
plan is intended to express the state's view of how marine areas should be managed through a
comprehensive and deliberate state view. The Government's decision on a marine spatial plan
entails positions on how various public interests, including claims of national interest under
Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code, are to be reported in the marine spatial plan. The
Government's decision may therefore deviate from the claims and documentation presented by
the various sectoral authorities (Prop. 2013/14:186 p.19). The guidance in the marine spatial plan
does not mean that a national interest is finally decided, but provides an overall assessment for
such a decision and the Government's view. What is of national interest is determined only when
applying Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code, for example when assessing permits. Claims from
the national interest authorities remain until the sectoral authority updates its national interest
claims, even after the marine spatial plan has been decided.
The statutory provision on marine spatial planning is placed in Chapter 4 of the Environmental
Code to be brought together with the other provisions on management of land and water
resources, since marine spatial planning concerns the management of sustainable development
regulated in Chapters 3 and 4 of the Environmental Code. The placement of marine spatial
planning in Chapter 4 also makes it clear that marine spatial plans are such a planning basis that
is needed to shed light on issues of water management and they are to form the basis for
deciding cases and matters under the Environmental Code (Prop. 2013/14:186 p.17).
The considerations of the marine spatial plans are strategic and long-term. This means that
marine spatial plans set out the direction for the use of the sea. In the marine spatial planning
process, the suitability for different uses is assessed overall and on the basis of the planning data
available or produced within the Marine spatial planning process. Based on this assessment, the
marine spatial plan guides on the priorities for uses. In the event of a subsequent permit
assessment, a more detailed project- and site-specific assessment of the use in an area is carried
out. For example, it is reviewed whether an exploitation entails a risk of accidents, a risk to
human health and safety, a risk of impact on the cultural environment, a risk of erosion, a risk of
significant damage to a national interest, or a risk that environmental quality standards cannot be
complied with.
In some cases, the achievement of the plan's objective of long-term sustainable development
requires the development of marine management and associated regulations, or the Government
to issue regulations prohibiting or restricting certain activities or measures. This may, for example,
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involve regulation or other measures that facilitate the coexistence of different interests. In the
case of measures relating to commercial fishing or shipping, agreements or decisions are in
many cases required within the EU or the International Maritime Organization (IMO).
Marine spatial plans in permit assessment and planning
The marine spatial plans shall be guiding both permit applications and other matters under the
Environmental Code. Each authority or municipality that applies the Environmental Code shall
ensure that marine spatial plans are available in the case or matter when examining an activity or
measure within the marine spatial plan area. In matters concerning new or changed use of a
marine area, the Environmental Code shall apply. In interpreting what is the most suitable use
under these provisions, marine spatial plans are indicative.
The marine spatial plans are also an indicative basis for certain permit applications under other
laws where the Environmental Code’s management provisions apply, such as the Act
(1992:1140) on Sweden’s exclusive economic zone, the continental shelf (1966:314) and the Act
(1983:293) on the establishment, extension and demarcation of the public waterway and port.
This is because the provisions of, inter alia, Chapters 3 and 4 of the Environmental Code shall
also apply to the examination of cases and matters under the above-mentioned laws.
The county administrative board has an important role as it is responsible for the initiatives
needed to ensure that planning and decision-making processes take account of Chapters 3 and 4
of the Environmental Code. When Chapters 3 and 4 of the Environmental Code are to be applied
in the examination of a case or matter, the county administrative board shall, in particular, work to
ensure that the national interests are met. In areas covered by an adopted marine spatial plan,
the work of the county administrative board shall be based on the marine spatial plan in
accordance with Section 3 of the Ordinance (1998:896) on the management of land and water
areas. Thus, the adopted marine spatial plan is the starting point for the part of permitting or
planning processes where national interest claims and good management come into play.
For new or changed use of a marine area, such as the establishment of wind energy or sand
extraction activities, a number of different permits from several licensing authorities may be
needed. In the annex on planning conditions, you can read briefly about the legal conditions
under each interest.
The role of marine spatial plans in municipal and regional planning
In accordance with the Planning and Building Act (2010:900), municipalities are obliged to
produce a comprehensive plan that sets out the direction for the long-term development of the
physical environment for the entire municipality. Some regions are obliged to produce a regional
plan that, among other things, sets out the basic features for the use of land and water areas that
are important for the county. The Planning and Building Act, as well as the area of the
municipality and the region, covers the territorial sea.
The marine spatial plan guides municipal and regional planning. According to the Planning and
Building Act, the comprehensive plan must state how the municipality intends to take into account
and coordinate the comprehensive plan with relevant national and regional objectives, plans and
4
programmes of importance for sustainable development within the municipality. The marine
spatial plan is also indicative of how national interests are to be met in the planning, see earlier
reference to Section 3 of the Ordinance (1998:896) on land and water management. The same
applies in relation to regional plans.
In the area of the territorial sea where the national, regional and municipal plans overlap, all plans
apply, in the Swedish exclusive economic zone only the marine spatial plan applies and in the
coastal area the municipal comprehensive plan and regional plan apply where it exists.
Figure 1.2-2 Concepts, boundaries and planning responsibilities. In the territorial sea, the state shares planning responsibilities
with municipalities. In the economic zone, the state has sole planning responsibility
The interaction between marine spatial plans, regional plans and comprehensive plans is
important for the good functioning of the link between sea and land. Regional and comprehensive
plans are important for demonstrating regional and local considerations and claims that may be
relevant to marine spatial planning.
Where a municipality has stated clear intentions regarding the future use of the marine areas
covered by both a comprehensive plan and a marine spatial plan, they are weighed in
on the decision on the marine spatial plan. In municipal reviews and in-depth reviews of
comprehensive plans, marine spatial plans provide a comprehensive source of information on the
state's view of future land and water use in the area. If the position of the marine spatial plan is
outdated, for example if new knowledge has emerged since the plan was adopted, there may be
reason for the municipality to deviate from the marine spatial plan in the comprehensive plan. The
same applies in relation to regional plans.
The County Administrative Board has two formal tools in which it must pay particular attention to
the municipalities in the comprehensive plan work if the municipality's view does not correspond
to the view presented in the marine spatial plan.
• During the review period of a new or amended comprehensive plan, the county
administrative board submits an audit opinion in accordance with Chapter 3, Section 16 of
the Planning and Building Act. It shall state, inter alia, whether the municipality's proposal
does not meet a national interest under Chapter 3 or 4 of the Environmental Code, whether
5
the proposal can contribute to non-compliance with an environmental quality standard under
Chapter 5 of the Environmental Code, whether inter-municipal issues are not coordinated in
an suitable manner, or whether a construction work is unsuitable with regard to health and
safety. When assessing whether the plan proposal meets a national interest under Chapters
3 or 4 of the Environmental Code, the county administrative board for areas covered by a
decided marine spatial plan shall be guided by the marine spatial plan (see reference above
to Section 3 of the Ordinance on economic management).
• The County Administrative Board shall also report to the municipality on the national and
inter-municipal interests that may have an impact on the topicality of the comprehensive
plan pursuant to Chapter 3, Section 26 of the Planning and Building Act. The report shall be
made during the second half of the period between two ordinary elections to the municipal
council. The document states how these interests relate to the comprehensive plan and
whether the county administrative board’s audit opinion in some respects no longer applies.
The same applies to regional plans.
The County Administrative Board monitors the national interests and must issue an opinion on
the municipality's proposal for a detailed development plan when the municipality develops one,
in accordance with the provisions of the Planning and Building Act. Even when a municipality
draws up a detailed development plan, situations could arise where the detailed development
plan does not correspond to the view of the future use of the water area presented in the marine
spatial plan.
Possibility of examining new claims in marine spatial plans
New demands and needs are expected to continuously arise in the marine spatial plan areas.
Such claims are dealt with in follow-ups and new proposals for marine spatial plans. Until new
marine spatial plans are adopted, guidance shall be included in existing marine spatial plans to
the extent relevant. If there is no direct guidance in the marine spatial plans, planning and
decision-making can be based on the intentions of the marine spatial plans or on the best
available knowledge.
Possibility to propose regulations
The Government may issue regulations prohibiting or restricting activities or measures within a
marine spatial plan area, if this is necessary to achieve the purpose of the plan. Regulations or
restrictions on the use of the planned area shall be those that are not covered by existing
restrictions and prohibitions (according to Government Bill 2013/14:186, p. 21). Prohibitions and
restrictions on certain uses may provide opportunities for other uses of the area. So far, no
proposals for such regulations have been made. The authority considers that existing
management is mainly able to capture what the marine spatial plans guide. Possibilities to
provide for prohibitions or restrictions on activities or measures within a marine spatial plan area
may in some cases be limited by international regulations such as the EU's Common Fisheries
Policy.
6
1.3. Marine spatial planning process
Marine spatial planning is a broad process involving many actors in several stages. After the
Government have adopted the marine spatial plans, they are applied and followed up in a
recurring cyclical process.
Marine spatial plans are developed in collaboration
Marine spatial planning is an open process that provides opportunities for participation for those
concerned at municipal, regional, national and international level. Industry and interest
organisations, as well as research institutions, are also given the opportunity to participate and
contribute with insight and knowledge.
At national level, cooperation takes place with central authorities and county administrative
boards on strategic planning issues, the planning process and sectoral issues.
At regional and municipal level, the county administrative boards have an important role in
coordinating national and municipal planning. Sweden's 14 coastal county administrative boards
participate in the work for municipal participation and in other supportive work towards the
municipalities. The county administrative boards of the counties of Kalmar, Västernorrland and
Västra Götaland coordinate the work of the coastal county administrative boards concerned. The
coastal county administrative boards also produce additional regional planning documentation, for
example from municipalities and development actors, or internally from the county administrative
board in matters within the county administrative board's areas of responsibility.
The municipalities contribute to the planning with documentation, comments and suggestions for
improvement during the planning process. This is done not least through municipal spatial
planning in both coastal areas and the part of the territorial sea that overlaps with national marine
spatial planning. It helps to strengthen the link between sea and land and improves coordination
between national and municipal planning.
Regional development strategies and regional plans form the basis of the planning work. Regions
are involved in the marine spatial planning process.
Two-stage consultations
The process of developing marine spatial plans has several steps. Two formal consultation
stages, consultation and a subsequent review consultation, take place before the Government
decides on marine spatial plans in accordance with the Marine Spatial Planning Ordinance. This
means that the draft marine spatial plans are made available so that those who wish can express
their views. The comments received are assessed and form the basis for revised plan proposals.
The formal dialogue stages contribute to broad participation and a democratic process.
The Agency for Marine and Water Management also carries out consultations with Sweden’s
neighbouring countries in accordance with the Espoo Convention. The Espoo Convention
concerns transboundary environmental effects.
7
To a large extent, the Marine spatial planning process also involves continuous dialogue and
collaboration. This means, for example, reconciliations and dialogue with central authorities and
county administrative boards on thematic and process-related issues.
A description of the consultation and opinion procedure can be found in the separate document
Presentation of the dialogue in the work on proposals for amended marine spatial plans. The
consultation and review report contains a summary of the comments received from the
consultation and review, including the Agency for Marine and Water Management’s comments on
them.
Planning based on the ecosystem approach
According to the Marine spatial planning ordinance, an ecosystem-based approach is to be
applied in the preparation of marine spatial plans. The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the
conservation of nature values, sustainable use and equitable distribution of nature resources.
This with the aim of ensuring that the use of ecosystems takes place within their
boundaries(Havs- och vattenmyndigheten 2012).
The UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is one of the most important international
foundations for the ecosystem approach. The Ecosystem Approach is based on the 12 Malawi
Principles. The ecosystem approach is applied in marine spatial planning in a number of ways
based on the Malawi principles (Havs- och vattenmyndigheten 2012). Some examples:
• Marine spatial planning is based on the social objectives set out in the overall interests of
society. Collaboration and dialogue in the course of work makes it possible to capture
perspectives from many different actors. Mainly related to Malawi Principle 1 - The
interests of society determine the objectives of management and 10 - The ecosystem
approach should integrate the conservation of biodiversity and its sustainable use.
• Marine spatial planning provides guidance at horizontal and strategic level with scope for
planning at local and regional level. Municipalities and regions are given the opportunity
to participate in national marine spatial planning, so that local and regional needs can be
taken into account. Mainly related to Malawi Principle 2 - Governance should be
decentralized to the lowest applicable level and involve all in order to balance local and
public interests.
• Marine spatial planning is carried out in an open planning process with collaboration and
dialogue based on municipal, regional, national and international perspectives. The
process allows both collaboration in the day-to-day work and formal opportunities to
gather views. Mainly related to Malawi Principle 2 - Governance should be decentralized
to the lowest applicable level and involve all in order to balance local and public interests;
11 - The ecosystem approach should take into account all types of relevant information,
including scientific and traditional and local knowledge, innovations and methods; and
Principle 12 - The ecosystem approach should involve all relevant sectors of society; and
scientific disciplines.
8
Assessment of impacts
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is a process aimed at integrating environmental
aspects into plans or programmes in order to promote sustainable development. The fact that a
marine spatial plan is subject to the requirement to carry out a strategic environmental
assessment pursuant to Chapter 6, Sections 1–19 of the Environmental Code is apparent from
the Environmental Assessment Ordinance. The work on strategic environmental assessment is
documented in an impact assessment in the form of a single document for the three marine
spatial plans.
The strategic environmental assessment of marine spatial plans is also based on the portal
section of the Environmental Code. The Environmental Code shall be applied in such a way that:
• protection of human health and the environment from damage and nuisance, whether caused
by pollution or other influences;
• valuable nature and cultural environments are protected and nurtured;
• preserving biodiversity;
• land, water and the physical environment are otherwise used in such a way as to ensure
good long-term management from an ecological, social, cultural and socio-economic point of
view, and
• re-use and recycling, as well as other management of materials, raw materials and energy,
are promoted in order to achieve a circular economy.
The requirements mean that social and economic aspects also need to be included in a broad
assessment of impacts. The impact assessment therefore includes social and economic effects,
in addition to the environmental ones required under Chapter 6 of the Environmental Code.
A national delimitation consultation for the environmental assessment was held between 8 July
and 10 October 2022. Sweden’s neighbouring countries have been notified under the Espoo
Convention (1 December 2022 to 28 February 2023). Consultations on the draft plan and the
environmental impact assessment were held with neighbouring countries under the same
Convention from 28 November 2023 to 20 February 2024.
The impact assessment is part of the application of the ecosystem approach. It shall clarify
environmental and other effects and guide planning to contribute to long-term sustainable
development.
According to the Marine spatial planning ordinance, proposals for marine spatial plans must
clearly state the implications and consequences of the use of the marine area in accordance with
the plan.
Planning in cycles and follow-up of the plan
Marine spatial planning can be described as a recurring process that takes place in cycles over
several years. Marine spatial planning takes several steps from gathering information and
analysing the current situation to planning where marine spatial plans are the result of the
9
planning process. After that, the plans are applied and follow-up is carried out on an ongoing
basis.
Figure 1.3-1 The overall marine spatial planning process in which marine spatial plans are developed for subsequent
implementation and follow-up. If necessary, or at least every eight years, new plan proposals are drawn up. (Source: Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management)
According to Section 21 of the Marine Spatial Planning Ordinance, the Agency for Marine and
Water shall follow up the plans adopted and draw up new proposals for marine spatial plans if
needed or at least every eight years. Preparedness is required to continuously take in, evaluate
and use new knowledge in future marine spatial plans.
According to Chapter 6, Sections 16 and 19 of the Environmental Code, the Agency for Marine
and Water Management shall monitor and evaluate the environmental impact of the plans in
practice. The intention is to gain early knowledge of significant environmental impacts that have
not been identified before, so that these impacts are stopped or reduced. The follow-up also aims
to monitor the environmental impact that is expected and that has been described in the plan's
environmental impact assessment.
A description of measures for monitoring and monitoring the significant environmental effects of
implementing marine spatial plans can be found in the environmental impact assessment.
The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management is preparing a proposal for a framework
for monitoring marine spatial plans in collaboration with, among others, county administrative
boards and universities. The purpose of the framework is to guide the follow-up of marine spatial
plans in order to facilitate and prepare the next planning round and to provide support to the
Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management to meet the legal requirements for follow-up.
The framework includes ongoing follow-up related to business intelligence and updating of
planning conditions, such as changing claims or uses. Secondly, the framework includes in-depth
follow-up where the focus is on application, goal achievement, consequences and analysis of the
plan's timeliness.
10
During this planning round, ongoing follow-up is carried out within the framework of the planning
process with the development of new plan proposals.
The in-depth follow-up focuses on:
• analysing the timeliness of the plan based on new or changed claims, conditions and uses
• answering questions on how the marine spatial plan is applied and how the guidance works
• assessing the impact of the plan and the achievement of its objectives;
• developing knowledge of the significant environmental impact of the plan.
1.4. Vision and goals
Vision – the sea in 2050
A marine spatial plan is future-oriented and will help shape the future we want to achieve. The
target year of the marine spatial plans is 2040. At the same time, 2050 is used as a vision year to
stimulate discussion and thoughts on the long-term perspectives of planning.
The marine spatial plans look ahead to 2050 and are based on a vision of how the sea is used,
provided that the planning objectives are met. The vision represents the state that marine spatial
plan will help to realize.
By 2050, we will use the sea through competitive, innovative and sustainable maritime
industries. The sea has good environmental status and a rich biodiversity. We preserve
and develop nature and cultural environments in the sea and make use of its ecosystem
services. The management of the sea has contributed to slowing down climate change
and we have adapted to changing circumstances. There are plenty of experience values
and opportunities for recreation. Business and management of the sea work together and
marine spatial plans contribute with a holistic view, foresight and predictability. By 2050,
we will be living in peace and freedom in the Baltic Sea and North Sea regions.
Planning objectives
The marine spatial plans shall integrate economic policy objectives, social objectives and
environmental objectives. To support the implementation of the marine spatial planning process,
there are ten planning objectives. The planning objectives are based on societal objectives,
legislation, national strategies and other relevant evidence (Figure 1.4-1 The planning objectives
and some of the overall objectives and conditions that have been the starting points for the
formulation of the planning objectives). Targets and strategies from the global to the national level
are included, including the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and EU strategies related
to marine and maritime issues, environment, climate and energy. At national level, for example,
strategies and objectives relating to marine environmental issues and various marine-related
activities have been taken into account, as well as Sweden's environmental objectives.
The planning objectives were developed during the first planning round, but have been updated
to some extent in this second planning round. The planning objectives consist of an overall
11
objective supported by the other nine objectives. These nine are divided into two groups with the
headings ‘create conditions for’ and ‘create preparedness for’. Claims that are clear and
extensive in the near term are grouped under conditions, while issues that, primarily in a longer
perspective, are deemed to have extensive claims in the sea are grouped under preparedness.
The objectives related to preparedness signal that marine spatial planning will take into account
future needs and activities.
Overall objective:
• Contribute to a good marine environment and sustainable development.
Create the conditions for:
• Regional development, recreation and preservation of cultural values
• Marine green infrastructure and promotion of ecosystem services
• Sustainable shipping
• Good accessibility
• Energy transmission and renewable electricity generation in the sea
• Sustainable commercial fishing
• Defence and security.
Prepare for:
• Future mineral extraction and carbon storage
• Future establishment of sustainable aquaculture.
Overall objective: Contribute to good marine environment and sustainable
development
The marine spatial plans shall provide overall spatial conditions to meet development needs and
objectives of sustainable development, while contributing to the achievement and maintenance of
a good marine environment.
Good marine environment is described above all in the national environmental quality objective A
Balanced Marine Environment Flourishing Coastal Areas and Archipelagos and its specifications.
Other environmental quality objectives are also relevant, such as A Rich Diversity of Plant and
Animal Life, Zero Eutrophication and A Non-toxic environment that also captures how
environmental problems from land and air have an impact on the sea. Good environmental status
in accordance with the Marine Environment Regulation is one of the clarifications.
Sustainable development relates, among other things, to Sweden's marine strategy and to the
EU's Green Deal, which includes, for example, the development of a sustainable blue economy.
Development is sustainable when we can meet our needs economically, environmentally and
socially today, while at the same time providing the conditions for future generations to meet their
needs. An important starting point for marine spatial planning is that sustainable development
requires well-functioning ecosystems. In accordance with the ecosystem approach's holistic
12
perspective, the functions of the ecosystem are therefore considered from several time
perspectives as well as direct, indirect and cumulative effects of claims in the sea.
An important starting point for marine spatial planning is to create the conditions for a limited
climate impact in line with the environmental quality objective "Reduced climate impact" and to
contribute to the climate transition.
Objective: Create conditions for regional development, recreation and preservation of
cultural values
The marine spatial plans shall provide spatial conditions for sustainable development, good
quality of life, equality and attractive environments regionally and locally. Different places and
areas have different conditions for and perspectives on regional development. Marine spatial
planning should therefore seek good conditions for local and regional development along the
entire coastline.
The marine spatial plans shall contribute to the consideration of the landscape and create the
conditions for the development of maritime industries and recreation. Outdoor life is of great
importance for people's quality of life and health.
The marine spatial plans will also contribute to the preservation of cultural environments so that
people continue to have access to and understand the country's historical development.
Preserved cultural environments provide opportunities to experience the landscape, contribute to
social sustainability and create attractive environments to live, visit and conduct activities in.
Recreation, nature values and cultural environments on the coast and in the sea are often a
prerequisite for tourism and quality of life in coastal communities, for the further development of
commercial fishing through by-products and for other marine-related activities that in turn
contribute to sustainable blue economy and employment.
Objective: Creating conditions for marine green infrastructure and promoting
ecosystem services
The marine spatial plans shall contribute to healthy ecosystems and the development of
ecosystem services. They shall support the establishment of new marine protected areas in
accordance with national and international objectives and create the conditions for strengthening
and maintaining representativeness, functionality and ecological links. Furthermore, the marine
spatial plans shall contribute to maintaining the species and habitats protected at a favourable
conservation status. Favourable conservation status is a term used to describe the conditions
needed for a nature type, habitat or specific species to remain in place in the long term. The term
is used for habitat types and species identified as being of particular value in the context of the
European Natura 2000 network.
The marine spatial plans shall contribute to ensuring marine green infrastructure. By green
infrastructure we mean an ecologically functional network of habitats and structures, nature areas
and landscaped elements that are designed, used and managed in such a way that biodiversity is
preserved and ecosystem services that are important to society are promoted throughout the
landscape. whereas green infrastructure is an important prerequisite for the promotion of
13
ecosystem services; The plans will also contribute to securing pathways and migration routes in
and between habitats in the marine environment, as well as migratory routes for birds. The
marine spatial plans shall provide the basis for scientific studies and long-term monitoring of the
marine environment.
Objective: Creating conditions for sustainable shipping
The marine spatial plans shall provide the conditions for ecologically, socially and economically
sustainable shipping. This applies to both short-distance shipping and long-distance sea shipping.
Marine transport is given sufficient space to grow, while marine spatial plans contribute to
increased maritime safety with fewer accidents and reduced risks of oil or other discharges, as
well as other disturbances. The marine spatial plans shall provide the conditions for efficient
transport routes with low fuel consumption as well as the least possible environmental impact of
shipping, especially in ecologically sensitive areas. Account shall be taken of the designation of
the Baltic Sea as a Particularly Sensitive Marine area (PSSA) by the International Maritime
Organization (IMO).
Objective: Create conditions for good accessibility
The marine spatial plans shall create the conditions for the development of maritime transport
and other infrastructure and make the sea accessible to a broad public.
Good accessibility in the maritime transport system provides good conditions for keeping the
transport infrastructure as a whole together, so that, for example, the transfer of goods from road
and rail to shipping is facilitated. Preparedness shall be created for the development of physical
infrastructure, such as future tunnels or bridges.
There shall continue to be good conditions for fishing vessels to reach and use the sea and ports
necessary for fishing activities.
Spatial conditions shall be provided for the use of the sea for electronic communication
infrastructure in the form of submarine cables and radio systems. Conditions must also be
created to give people access to the sea for recreation. It can contribute to both public health and
development in the hospitality industry.
Objective: Creating conditions for energy transmission and renewable energy
production in the sea
The marine spatial plans will support work on integration and connection to the European
electricity grid and provide the conditions for existing, planned and potential submarine cables for
energy transmission within Sweden and between Sweden and other countries. This also applies
to gas pipelines and cables for energy transmission from offshore energy production.
The marine spatial plans will contribute to creating the conditions for Sweden's future need for
fossil-free energy extraction. In this, the planning will support Sweden's energy targets by
creating the conditions for the expansion of offshore wind energy.
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Preparedness shall be provided for other offshore energy production from other types of sources
and marine spatial plans shall provide the conditions for testing new technologies in the area.
Objective: Creating the conditions for sustainable commercial fishing
Marine spatial plans shall contribute to environmentally sustainable, resource-efficient, innovative,
competitive and knowledge-based fisheries within an ecosystem-based management that
includes consideration of important habitats for both fish and other species. Well-managed fish
stocks and fish habitats are a prerequisite for sustainable and competitive commercial fishing.
Particularly important is integration with coastal zone planning, where there are important fish
habitats, namely spawning and nursery areas.
Objective: Creating the conditions for defence and security
The marine spatial plans will create the conditions for the defence of Sweden and Swedish
interests in both the short and long term. Actors in both military and civil defence are given the
opportunity to conduct their activities. Among other things, to conduct exercises under various
conditions and other activities of importance to the military defense, such as signals intelligence.
The marine spatial plans will also provide the conditions to meet the need for strategic supply of
Sweden in peace, crisis and war.
Objective: Prepare for possible future extraction of minerals and for carbondioxide
storage
Consideration should be given to the possibility of increased extraction of finite resources such as
sand, gravel and other minerals, as well as carbon storage to counteract climate change.
Extraction of oil and gas in Sweden's maritime territory or economic zone is not relevant.
Objective: Prepare for the future establishment of sustainable aquaculture
Marine spatial plans shall have spatial preparedness for the development of aquaculture and the
potential for space-efficient use of the sea for sustainable production.
In terms of the development potential of aquaculture and increased research in this area,
aquaculture outside the coastal zone may become relevant in a future that fits within the marine
spatial planning framework 2040 and vision year 2050. Marine spatial planning should therefore
take account of the fact that aquaculture may be relevant in marine spatial plans in the future.
15
Figure 1.4-1 The planning objectives and some of the overall objectives and conditions that have been the starting points for the
formulation of the planning objectives
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2. Overall guidance on use and coexistence
The plan description and associated plan maps provide guidance on the use of the sea. The plan
maps show the geographical areas for different uses and particular consideration. This part
describes how the plan maps should be read as well as the meaning of uses and particular
consideration. The section also provides guidance on how coexistence between different uses
can work.
2.1. Principles for the assessment of the most
suitable use and particular consideration
Holistic assessment
The considerations of the marine spatial plans are strategic and long-term. This means that the
marine spatial plans guide the direction of the use of the sea and that the suitability for different
uses is assessed overall, as described in section 1.2. The assessment is based on the planning
data available and produced within the marine spatial process, including the assessment of
uncertainties. There are continuing knowledge gaps and the need for developed data.
According to the Marine spatial planning ordinance, marine spatial plans must specify the use for
the sea. The uses specified in the different geographical areas of the marine spatial plans are
judged to be the most suitable, taking into account the nature and location of the areas and the
needs that exist, and on the basis that they collectively contribute to the overall objectives of the
plans as long-term sustainable development.
This means that assessments for individual areas must at the same time relate to assessments
on a regional scale as well as for the entire marine spatial plan area and the three marine spatial
plans taken together. To the extent possible, the assessments also relate to conditions prevailing
on land, in neighbouring countries and abroad.
Use
The geographical delimitation of uses in marine spatial plans is based on one of the following
three types of public interest:
• National interests under Chapter 4, Section 8 of the Environmental Code, i.e. Natura 2000
sites.
• National interest claims under Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code.
• Other public interests of substantial significance.
Areas of national interest under Chapter 4 of the Environmental Code
Areas of national interest are regulated in the geographically related management provisions in
Chapter 4 of the Environmental Code. Areas with particularly high values in terms of nature and
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cultural conservation, tourism and outdoor recreation are listed directly in Chapter 4. These areas
are in their entirety of national interest under the Environmental Code and thus decided by the
Swedish Parliament. Areas with particularly high values for tourism and outdoor recreation are
listed in Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code. Coastal and archipelago areas which
have high conservation values and which are to be protected against the establishment of
environmentally damaging installations are listed in Chapter 4, Section 3 of the Environmental
Code (unbroken coast). Other coastal and archipelago areas that have high conservation values
and where the establishment of environmentally damaging facilities may take place in places
where similar activities already exist are listed in Chapter 4, Section 4 of the Environmental Code
(Highly Developed Coasts). Several of our coastlines are covered by one or more overlapping
national interests as described above. Since the values are primarily based on coastal areas and
that in most cases its delimitation and description are not clearly defined for the marine spatial
plan area, the uses of the marine spatial plan are not based on these values. However, the
marine spatial plan is designed with these national interests in mind and uses within the marine
spatial plan may need to be adapted based on the national interests' needs.
Natura 2000 sites are also of national interest under Chapter 4 of the Environmental Code.
Activities or measures that may significantly affect such a nature area require a special permit
assessment. The nature of the use of the marine spatial plan is based, inter alia, on Natura 2000
sites.
Areas covered by national interest claims under Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code
Areas covered by national interest claims are designated by authorities and are regulated in the
operational management provisions in Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code. The areas concern
both different conservation interests and areas that have been deemed important for
development for a certain purpose, according to the authority responsible for the national interest
claim in question. An area covered by a national interest claim shall, when deciding on a change
of use or permit assessment under Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code, be protected against
measures that may significantly damage the value of the area, significantly complicate the
operation of a business or significantly complicate the creation or use of a facility, depending on
the national interest claim. In order for the concept of ‘significant harm’ or ‘significant aggravation’
to be met, the measure must either have a lasting negative impact on the interest in question or,
temporarily, have a very significant negative impact on it. Marine spatial planning does not assess
whether the impact is significant enough to cause significant damage or significant aggravation.
Public interests of substantial significance
In general, public interests in spatial planning are land and water interests that contribute to the
achievement of social objectives for economically, socially and environmentally sustainable
development. What are public interests of substantial significance and which, according to the
Marine spatial planning ordinance, must be accounted for in marine spatial plans, are considered
at national level in the marine spatial planning process. One of the following shall be met for the
interest in a geographical area in order to be considered as a public interest of substantial
significance in marine spatial planning:
• It is of great national importance.
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• Needed for important societal functions now or in the future.
• Needed to achieve great societal benefit.
• Necessary to fulfil Sweden's international obligations.
• Necessary to implement or maintain nationally or internationally important structures.
Overlapping public interests
In large parts of the sea, several public interests overlap. The marine spatial plan addresses
overlapping public interests by providing guidance on coexistence between different uses where
they are deemed compatible and suitable or by giving priority to the use(s) deemed most suitable
where uses are deemed incompatible. The marine spatial plan can thus give priority to a use
based on a national interest claim under Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code, even though there
is another national interest claim in the same area. The marine spatial plan may thus also give
priority to a use based on a public interest of substantial significance, despite the fact that there is
a national interest claim under Chapter 3 of the Environmental Code in the same area (see
Section 1.2). This may include, for example, national interest claims that are considered to be
outdated or assessments to achieve the objectives of the plan.
The assessment of the marine spatial plan then provides guidance for subsequent planning and
when the Environmental Code is applied, for example in permit applications. All existing national
interest claims remain regardless of the marine spatial plan's guidance until the respective
sectoral authority makes new decisions on its national interest claims. What can be affected is
how existing national interest claims are taken into account in planning and licensing.
Particular considerations
The marine spatial plans specify areas where ishould be given to the interests of total defence,
high cultural and nature values. Consideration refers to values that are important to preserve or
strengthen in order for the sea to be used sustainably and is based on the same types of public
interest as the uses. The need to specify specific considerations has been identified in the Marine
spatial planning process as a complement to specifying uses for the purpose of coexistence.
Comprehensive guidance on coexistence can be found in Section 2.4. The marine spatial plans
do not specify what measures may need to be taken to meet specific considerations in a specific
area. Suitable measures can be specified, if necessary, in permit assessment, planning or other
management.
2.2. Plan maps presentation
The uses shown in the plan map have been deemed to be the most suitable and these take
priority over other uses. Other uses in the area must be adapted to the conditions and needs of
the specified uses in management, planning and permit assessment.
In many cases, multiple uses at the same location are indicated as the most suitable. These then
have the same degree of priority over other uses. Where more than one use is indicated,
coexistence is deemed possible. The uses that are deemed to coexist may need to adapt to each
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other. Where the area of investigation is indicated, this entails that further investigation is needed
to assess whether the specified use is the most suitable and whether coexistence is possible with
other specified uses.
The marine spatial plan comprises all spaces within the plan area – the sea, the space above the
sea level, the seabed and the subsoil. Please note that the demarcation between private water
and public water is not fully investigated. Therefore, the delimitation of the plan areas to the coast
may in reality differ from the delimitation shown in the maps of the marine spatial plan. According
to Chapter 4, Section 10 of the Environmental Code, marine spatial plans shall cover Sweden’s
exclusive economic zone and the areas not included in real estate in the Swedish territorial sea
outside the specific delimitation lines, one nautical mile from the baselines, as set out in the Act
(2017:1272) on Sweden’s territorial waters and maritime zones.
The plan maps shall be interpreted on the approximate scale between 1:700 000 and 1:1 000
000. The boundaries and markings for planning in the map are based on the strategic level of the
marine spatial plans. The plan area maps (maps 1, 5 and 11) are on a scale of 1:2 300 000 in full
A4, while the marine area maps (maps 2-4, 6-10 and 12-13) are on a scale of 1:1 000 000 in full
A4.
In order to present the planning more clearly, each marine spatial plan area is divided into marine
areas. The three marine spatial plans consist of ten marine areas. The division into marine areas
has no legal significance.
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FACT BOX: Priority guidance
The guidance on the most suitable use
indicates the priority for uses. In addition,
specific needs are identified in some
areas. The guidelines in the marine
spatial plans do not contain any
prohibitions or binding restrictions.
Examples include the right of vessels to
make their way regardless of what the
marine spatial plans indicate, as long as
there are no restrictions in the shipping
regulations, the possibility to apply for
permits for energy extraction in areas
other than those specified in the marine
spatial plans, consideration of nature and
cultural values even where they are not
specified in the marine spatial plans, and
the fact that commercial fishing is carried
out within larger areas than the use of the
marine spatial plans and is regulated by
the EU.
Figure 2.2-1 The marine spatial plans are divided into different types of areas.
Uses are reported in different ways in the plan map:
• The uses of energy extraction, investigation area for energy extraction, defence,
general use, cultural environment and nature are presented with one letter and
delimited by lines that form areas. Each area has a number, such as Ö200.
• The uses of electricity transmission, outdoor recreation, sand extraction, investigation
area sand extraction, shipping, investigation area shipping and commercial fishing are
delimited by their own geographical markings. These geographical markings usually
extend over several of the numbered areas. The uses and the approaches that are
important for the uses in management, planning and licensing are described below.
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2.3. Guidance on the most suitable use and
particular consideration
Electricity transmission
Recommendation indicating the most suitable use
Electricity transmission
Conditions for electricity distribution and transmission infrastructure shall be
maintained. There must be good opportunities to maintain and maintain the
infrastructure.
Needs
A prerequisite for achieving the national and European goals for energy and climate policy is that
there are opportunities to better connect the electricity systems in Sweden and othervcountries in
Europe. By linking the electricity grids between the countries around the Baltic Sea and the
Skagerrak/Kattegat, conditions are created for a socio-economically efficient expansion of
offshore wind farms.
Areas with national interest claims
Installations for energy distribution can be designated by the Swedish Energy Agency as being of
national interest under Chapter 3, Section 8 of the Environmental Code. There are no national
interest claims for energy distribution in the marine spatial plan areas. The Swedish Civil
Contingencies Agency has designated all cables and stations in the electricity transmission
network and the cables in the electricity distribution network between the mainland and Gotland
and associated stations as areas of national interest because they are needed for total defence
facilities, in accordance with Chapter 3, Section 9 of the Environmental Code, Civilian Section.
Areas with the use electricity transmission in the marine spatial plans
Areas indicated as using electricity transmission are based on Sweden's existing transmission
network, which constitutes a public interest of substantial significance in the marine spatial plan
areas. When areas are specified for the use of electricity transmission, this means guidance that
the interest takes priority in planning and licensing in those areas. For troubleshooting and
repairing submarine cables, there must be plenty of space for ships and equipment to carry out
these operations. For this, a distance of at least 3 times the water depth or 300 meters is
required.
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Energy extraction
Recommendation indicating the most suitable use
Energy extraction
Area of energy extraction. Conditions for energy extraction shall be maintained.
Infrastructure for distributing and transmitting electricity, stability on and under
the seabed for possible foundation, as well as good accessibility for ships during
construction, operation and maintenance shall be taken into account.
Investigation area for energy extraction
Area with good conditions for energy extraction where the area is subject to
major uncertainties about the impact on other values or interests. Further
investigation is required to determine whether the use of energy extraction is the
most suitable. In the marine spatial plan,, investigate areas indicates the need for
investigation of cumulative effects on bird migration routes and Natura 2000
sites.
Needs
According to the Energy Bill in 2024 (Regeringen 2024a), planning for electricity use in Sweden
(Regeringen 2024a) should be based on a future need of at least 300 terawatt hours annually in
2045, approximately a doubling compared to electricity use at present. This will be implemented
within an energy target that is 100 percent fossil-free. The agreement does not set a specific
target for the expansion of wind energy in general or offshore wind energy specifically, but
describes it as an important part of Sweden’s energy mix.
The government assignment that forms the basis for the amended proposals for marine spatial
plans states that the objective is for the marine spatial plans to enable an additional 90 terawatt
hours in annual production (M2022/00276). Together with previous planning, this means that the
target is 120 terawatt hours.
Areas of national interest claims
The Swedish Energy Agency identifies areas of national interest for energy production, in this
case wind energy, in accordance with Chapter 3, Section 8 of the Environmental Code. The
Swedish Energy Agency has been commissioned (Regeringen 2024c) to review national interest
claims for fossil-free energy production and distribution. The assignment must be reported to the
Government Offices (Ministry of Climate and Business) no later than 25 October 2025.
Areas of public interest of substantial significance
In addition to the national interest claims, additional areas for energy extraction have been
developed in an assignment where the Swedish Energy Agency coordinated nine other
authorities(Energimyndigheten 2023). These areas are considered to be public interests of
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substantial significance for the national production of renewable electricity. They contribute to the
achievement of energy targets.
The areas have been identified on the basis of an overall assessment that takes into account
whether the area has suitable conditions. These conditions refer to wind speed, sea depth and
distance to baseline. As technology is changing at a rapid pace, areas were also identified that
are not relevant in the near future, but that are deemed to be possible in the future. The areas
have also been identified on the basis of the possibility of coexistence with other values and
interests, as far as deemed reasonable.
Areas with the use energy extraction in the marine spatial plans
Areas with the use energy extraction refer to wind energy. They are based on areas of national
interest and areas of public interest of substantial significance for wind energy that have been
identified in the marine spatial planning process.
For several areas where there are national interest claims or of public interest of substantial
significance for wind energy, the marine spatial plans indicate a different use. This is because the
uses are deemed incompatible and priority is given to the other use, according to the marine
spatial plans’ guidance on the most suitable use.
When areas are specified for the use of energy extraction, this means guidance that the interest
takes priority in planning and permit assessment in those areas. All areas specified for use
energy extraction in marine spatial plans also include guidance on specific consideration. This
may include particular consideration to the interests of total defence, high cultural heritage values
or high nature values. In more detailed planning or licensing of energy extraction in these areas,
these values and interests need to be taken into account in particular.
Enabling offshore wind energy means that there needs to be areas with different characteristics.
The marine spatial plans therefore report both areas closer and further from the coast, as well as
areas suitable for bottom-fixed foundations, and areas suitable for floating foundations. Such
dispersal allows areas to be built on at different times and with different levels of economic risk.
Energy areas can be used for offshore wind energy in part or in full and for the period specified in
a permit. In the permit assessment, more detailed studies are carried out, based on defined
projects, to test suitability and assess the environmental impact. Conditions can be used to
regulate how coexistence and environmental impacts are managed in order for the activity to be
assessed as suitable.
Investigation areas for energy extraction in the marine spatial plans
Areas listed as investigation areas are areas where further investigation in planning or permit
examination is required to determine whether the use of energy extraction is the most suitable.
This means that more detailed analyses are needed to assess whether the use is compatible with
any other interest or that Natura 2000 permits under Chapter 7, Section 28a, of the
Environmental Code are required. Several energy extraction areas are indicated for investigation
due to the need for a better understanding of how offshore wind energy in one area or in several
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adjacent areas affects bird migration routes. The investigation areas are described under the
respective marine areas in Parts 3 and 5.
Recreation
Recommendation indicating the most suitable use
Recreation
Area for recreation. Conditions for recreation shall be maintained by having nature
and cultural environment areas of good quality that are accessible to the public and
that contribute to experiences.
Needs
The overarching goal of the outdoor recreation policy is to support people's opportunities to
spend time outdoors and exercise outdoor life on the basis of the right of public access. All
people should have the opportunity to experience nature, well-being, social community and
increased knowledge of nature and the environment. The development of recreation-related
business activities can make recreation accessible to more people.
Areas with national interest claims
The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management and the Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency identify areas of national interest for outdoor recreation, in accordance with
Chapter 3, Section 6 of the Environmental Code, within their respective areas of responsibility.
Only a few areas are designated within the marine spatial plans. These are mainly found in
connection with the coasts and at certain offshore banks, i.e. shallow areas in the open sea.
Along the coasts, within the baselines, there are many areas that are designated as national
interests but are outside the marine spatial plan areas. The need to take account of these
national interests may extend within the marine spatial plan areas.
Areas of national interest
Along the coast and in the marine area there are national interests for outdoor recreation in
accordance with Chapter 4, Section 2 of the Environmental Code. At some coastal strips, they
are demarcated so that they can be found within the marine spatial plan area. The need to take
account of these areas of national interest may extend within the marine spatial plans.
Areas of public interest of substantial significance
This planning round does not identify areas of public interest of public significance for recreation.
Additional data that improves the state of knowledge about outdoor recreation values within and
in connection with marine spatial plans may form the basis for public interests of substantial
significance in future planning.
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Areas with the use recreation in the marine spatial plans
The areas with the use recreation are based on national interest claims for outdoor recreation in
accordance with Chapter 3, Section 6 of the Environmental Code.
Areas designated for the use recreation entails guidance that the interest takes priority in
planning and licensing in those areas.
Defence
Recommendation indicating the most suitable use
Defence
Area of defence activities covering maritime training areas as well as impact areas
for installations outside the marine spatial plan areas. Prerequisites for defence
activities shall be maintained.
Particular consideration to the interests of total defence
In this area, particular consideration shall be given to the interests of the total
defence in the management, planning and licensing procedures. The risk of
cumulative impacts of energy extraction on defence interests shall be taken into
account.
Needs
Sweden's national defence consists of military defence and civil defence. The Swedish Armed
Forces need training areas in the sea and in the coastal zone, without interference from physical
or technical obstacles. For signals intelligence, there is a need for protection to counteract
interference from other activities. Civil defence is in need of a functioning supply of goods and
services. Fairways to strategic ports need to be kept free and conditions for offshore cables for
electricity supply and communication need to be maintained.
Areas with national interest claims
For military defence, national interests are defined in and adjacent to the sea. The Swedish
Armed Forces identify military areas of national interest claims in accordance with Chapter 3,
Section 9 of the Environmental Code. Within marine spatial plans, they refer to maritime training
areas.
Within the marine spatial plan areas, there are also national interest claims for the military part of
the total defence that are covered by secrecy and for these are not reported geographical
delimitation or function.
The Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency has decided that all lines and stations in the electricity
transmission network and the lines in the electricity distribution network between the mainland
and Gotland and their stations shall constitute areas of national interest claims on the grounds
26
that they are needed for total defence installations, civilian parts, in accordance with Chapter 3,
Section 9 of the Environmental Code.
Areas of public interest of substantial significance
Areas of influence within the marine spatial plans for defence facilities (national interest claims for
total defence) outside marine spatial plans are considered to constitute public interests of
substantial significance as they are needed for the functions of the defence facilities.
Areas with the use defence in the marine spatial plans
Areas indicated as use defence are based on national interest claims within the marine spatial
plan areas (sea training areas) and on influence areas for national interest claims located outside
the marine spatial plan areas. When areas are specified for defence use, this means guidance
that the interest takes priority in planning and licensing in those areas.
Areas with guidance on particular consideration to the interest of national defence
In areas where particular consideration is given to the interests of national defence, activities
involving fixed installations need to consult with the Armed Forces on how facilities can be
designed so that defence interests are not adversely affected.
Particular consideration to the interests of total defence may mean, among other things, that the
location and design of a wind farm need to be adapted to defence interests. This also applies to
other types of fixed installations and other uses. Particular consideration to the interests of the
total defence may also mean that adaptation needs to take place when several energy areas
combined can have an impact on the total defence. The risk of cumulative effects on defence
interests must therefore be taken into account. This means that expansion within one energy area
can affect the possibility of using another area specified in the plan with the use of energy
extraction or investigation area energy extraction.
When particular consideration is given to the interests of total defence in areas of nature or
general use, the consideration refers to restrictions on tall objects due to flight operations.
General use
Recommendation indicating the most suitable use
General use
Area where no particular use has priority. However, the uses of electricity
transmission, recreation, sand extraction, investigation area sand extraction,
shipping, investigation area shipping and commercial fishing that are delimited by
their own geographical markings have priority where they are indicated.
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Areas with the general use in the marine spatial plans
In areas designated as general use, there is a varying degree of overlap between other uses that
are delimited by their own markings, such as electricity transmission, recreation, sand extraction,
shipping or commercial fishing. These uses have priority where indicated.
Cultural environment
Recommendation indicating the most suitable use
Cultural environment
Area with a cultural or nature history environment. Cultural and nature history
values must be preserved.
k Particular consideration to high cultural heritage values
Within the area, particular consideration shall be given to high cultural heritage
values in the management, planning and permit assessment.
Particular consideration to high cultural heritage values refers to the landscape's
cultural-historical character and visual impact that changes the cultural-historical
content but also includes consideration for ancient and cultural-historical remains
on the seabed. Areas of impact may be larger than designated areas in marine
spatial plans. The impact needs to be assessed on the basis of local conditions.
Values identified in the marine spatial planning process are listed by marine are in
Parts 3, 4 and 5 of this document.
Needs
Together, the cultural environments will make it possible for present and future generations to
take part of the landscape's historical dimension and thereby understand Sweden's development
through the ages. According to the national cultural environment objectives, cultural environment
work shall, among other things, promote a sustainable society with a diversity of cultural
environments that are preserved, used and developed, and promote a holistic approach to the
management of the landscape that means that the cultural environment is taken into account in
the development of society.
Areas of national interest claims
The Swedish National Heritage Board identifies areas of national interest claims for the
conservation of the cultural environment in accordance with Chapter 3, Section 6 of the
Environmental Code. At present, no national interest claims have been identified in the marine
spatial plan areas. On the other hand, there are national interest claims for cultural conservation
in connection with or near the marine spatial plan areas that may be affected by activities at sea
and therefore need to be examined under the Environmental Code. The need to take national
interests into account may extend into the marine spatial plan areas.
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Areas of national interest
National interests under Chapter 4 of the Environmental Code are geographically defined areas
of national interest specified in the Environmental Code and thus decided by the Riksdag
(parliament). These are national interests for unbroken coasts under Section 3 and high-exploited
coasts under Section 4. In view of their nature and cultural values, the areas as a whole are of
national interest and activities must not significantly damage the nature and cultural values of the
areas.
Areas of public interest of substantial significance
In the marine spatial planning process, national interest claims alone are not considered sufficient
to achieve the cultural environment objectives. Therefore, additional valuable cultural sites have
been recognised or identified in the Marine spatial planning process as being of significant public
interest.
World heritage sites are considered so valuable from a cultural or nature environmental point of
view that they are of concern to all humanity. They are designated under the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Convention. The
High Coast World Heritage Site, the Hanseatic City of Visby, the Meridian Arch of Struve, the
agricultural landscape of Southern Öland and the Naval City of Karlskrona are adjacent to the
marine spatial plan areas. The High Coast World Heritage Site is partly located within the marine
spatial plan area of the Gulf of Bothnia. Activities at sea may affect the World Heritage Site's
unique values of global interest and therefore an Impact Assessment in a World Heritage context
may be required as part of an impact assessment.
Under Chapter 7, Section 9 of the Environmental Code, a county administrative board or a
municipality may decide that an area is to be protected and managed as a cultural reserve. The
intention is to enable the care and preservation of valuable cultural landscapes. At present, there
are no cultural reserves within the marine spatial plan areas.
Landscape protection is protection introduced on the basis of Section 19 of the Nature
Conservation Act in the version prior to 1 January 1975. The purpose of the protection is to
protect large areas from major impact or change. The provisions in landscape protection areas
apply until they are replaced by other forms of protection. Within the marine spatial plan areas
there is landscape protection for an area at Öregrund and Östhammar and around Haparanda
Archipelago.
Within a government assignment the coastal county administrative boards (Länsstyrelserna 2024)
have identified areas of value for marine cultural heritage. The purpose of the planning evidence
is to clarify which cultural values along Sweden's coastline that may be affected by the expansion
of large-scale, offshore wind energy. The data thus handles a selection of valuable cultural
environments. Most value areas are outside the area covered by the marine spatial plans, but
have consideration needs that extend into the marine spatial plan area. Most of the value areas
include one or more areas of national interest claim for the conservation of the cultural
environment. Other documents that may be included as a basis for the designation of value areas
include, for example, national interest under Chapter 4, Sections 3 and 4 of the Environmental
29
Code, World Heritage Sites, cultural reserves, ancient and cultural heritage sites and/or
municipally designated cultural environments(Länsstyrelserna 2024).
In the marine spatial planning process, the areas described above are considered to be public
interests of substantial significance for the cultural environment. Developed data and analyses
that improve the state of knowledge about high cultural heritage values within and in connection
with marine spatial plans may form the basis for public interests of substantial significance in
future planning.
Areas with the use cultural environment in the marine spatial plan
The areas with guidance on the use cultural environment are based on areas with World Heritage
Sites. At present, only one area of the High Coast World Heritage Site overlaps with the marine
spatial plan area and is reported using the cultural environment, but several other World Heritage
Sites along the coast of Sweden need consideration that extends into the marine spatial plan
areas.
That areas are designated for the use cultural environment entails guidance that the interest has
priority in planning and licensing in those areas.
Areas with guidance on particular consideration to the high culture values
In areas with particular consideration to high cultural heritage values, there may be special needs
for measures in management, planning and permit examination. This may mean that measures
are taken to minimise direct, indirect and cumulative damage to the cultural environment and may
consist of specific requirements for the location and design of wind farms or through specific
requirements during the construction phase of a wind farm. Areas of consideration may be larger
than designated areas in marine spatial plans. In particular, cultural environments whose values
are strongly linked to the need for a clear horizon may need to be considered over longer
distances. The impact needs to be assessed on the basis of local conditions in future planning
and permit processes.
The conditions for an establishment can only be fully assessed when it is clear how an intended
establishment will manifest itself (height, location, design, design). Therefore, in the early
planning phase of a national marine spatial plan, it is not possible to fully define the conditions for
an establishment in the vicinity of a cultural environment, but this is something that is further
clarified in subsequent processes at a regional and local level.
Particular consideration to high cultural heritage values is given in areas with the use energy
extraction and investigation area energy extraction where these have a distance of 35 kilometres
or less from national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation under Chapter 3, Section 6
of the Environmental Code or identified value areas for marine cultural heritage values in the
coastal county administrative boards' documentation(Länsstyrelserna 2024). At this distance,
offshore wind turbines are considered to be at risk of visually affecting (indirectly affecting)
cultural environments on land. In cases where coastal counties have integrated consideration
distances in designated value areas, particular consideration has mainly been given where direct
overlaps exist between the value areas and proposed energy areas. Particular consideration to
30
high cultural heritage values is given in this planning round in relation to the use of energy
extraction because offshore wind energy is considered to have a greater need for guidance
based on the impact it can have on cultural heritage values that are often found in coastal and
archipelago areas outside the marine spatial plan area.
The distance of 35 kilometres has been a starting point in the work to relate the indirect impact of
wind energy areas on valuable cultural environments in marine spatial planning and is used as a
general consideration distance. The distance is based on an assumed height of 350 metres to the
highest point of the wind turbines. The distance has also been a starting point for assessing the
coexistence of wind energy and the cultural environment within the framework of the work on the
Swedish Energy Agency's joint government assignment on Proposals for suitable energy
extraction areas for marine spatial plans . (Energimyndigheten 2023) Actual distances of
consideration need to be assessed from a local perspective.
Nature
Recommendation indicating the most suitable use
Nature
Nature area. The area has nature values to be preserved and developed in order to
ensure biodiversity and promote ecosystem services.
Particular consideration to high nature values
Within the area, particular consideration shall be given to high nature values in
management, planning and permit assessment.
Values identified in the marine spatial planning process are listed by marine area in
Parts 3, 4 and 5 of this document.
Needs
Biodiversity must be preserved. When the sea and its resources are being used, it must be done
in a sustainable way, for present and future generations. Certain marine environments need
special protection in relation to other activities. These needs may justify protection or other
management and permit-granting measures to ensure reduced environmental impacts on marine
ecosystem services such as fish production.
Viable marine environments enhance and secure access to ecosystem services. Coherent,
representative and ecologically functional structures are important prerequisites for this. There is
also a need for sustainable management of areas that are particularly important for marine
ecosystems as the climate changes, so-called climate refugia.
A climate refuge is an area that may need special protection to preserve important plants and
animals as the climate changes and their distribution decreases. Areas are often the more stable
parts of a species' wider range that are expected to remain as salinity and temperature change. A
climate refuge is considered important for the species to continue to exist in the marine area.
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Read more in the report Basis for climate refugia in marine spatial planning 2017(Havs- och
vattenmyndigheten 2017c).
Areas of national interest claims and of national interest
Three different national interests concern nature values in the sea:
• National interests under Chapter 4, Section 8 of the Environmental Code, i.e. Natura 2000
sites, are proposed by the county administrative board. The Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency then reviews the selection and proposes areas to the Government. It is
then the Government that decides to propose to the European Commission that these
areas be included in the Natura 2000 network. Natura 2000 sites are part of marine site
protection.
• National interest claims for nature conservation under Chapter 3, Section 6 of the
Environmental Code are identified by the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management.
• National interest claims for commercial fishing relating to spawning and nursery areas
under Chapter 3, Section 5 of the Environmental Code are identified by the Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management.
Areas of public interest of substantial significance
In the marine spatial planning process, national interests and national interests alone are not
considered sufficient to achieve good environmental status, preserve biodiversity, strengthen
ecosystem services and protect important areas and species as the climate changes. Therefore,
additional areas of high nature value have been recognised or identified in the marine spatial
process and have been identified as essential public interests. The areas consist partly of already
protected areas under Chapter 7 of the Environmental Code and partly of areas identified within
the framework of the marine spatial planning process.
The areas of public interest of substantial significance for high nature values that have been
identified in the marine spatial planning are based on a large amount of supporting information
collected or produced by the Agency for Marine and Water Management (Havs- och
vattenmyndigheten 2019). An update of the documentation was carried out by the coastal county
administrative boards in autumn 2022. The data shows habitat types and species that are
prevalent and representative for each marine spatial plan area. The assessment is based on the
following criteria:
• The area constitutes the Marine Protected Area (MPA) under the regional marine
environmental conventions HELCOM (Convention for the Protection of the Environment
of the Baltic Marine area) and OSPAR (Convention for the Protection of the Marine
Environment of the North-East Atlantic), but is not protected by Swedish legislation.
• The area has confirmed nature values or needs for consideration according to multiple
bases. It concerns documentation relating to nature value mapping and environmental
impact. It also includes data on areas important for species and ecosystems in a future
changing climate, so-called climate refugia.
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• The area has confirmed nature values or needs for consideration based on individual
documentation. The evidence on which the assessment is based shows low uncertainty.
• The area has confirmed nature values of high originality. Originality is defined as areas
with relatively low environmental impact while ecological values are high.
• The area is in a planning process to become a marine protected area such as Natura
2000 area, nature reserve or national park.
Marine nature reserves and national parks are considered to be of public interest of substantial
significance. These areas are included in marine site protection along with Natura 2000 sites.
Planned marine site protection of the Natura 2000 and marine nature reserves types is also of
substantial public interest.
Some areas of public interest of substantial significance are currently not covered by existing site
protection. Marine spatial plans help to draw attention to and strengthen potential ecological links
between areas under marine protection and areas of public interest of substantial significance by
identifying the latter. Planning thus strengthens the conditions for a coherent green infrastructure,
through areas that are important for preserving ecosystem services.
Areas with the use nature in the marine spatial plans
The areas designated with the most suitable use nature are based on national interests under
Chapter 4, Section 8 of the Environmental Code, i.e., Natura 2000 areas, national interest claims
for nature conservation under Chapter 3, Section 6 of the Environmental Code, national interest
claims for commercial fishing regarding spawning and nursery areas under Chapter 3, Section 5
of the Environmental Code, and national parks and nature reserves under Chapter 7, the
Environmental Code. That areas are designated for the use nature, entails guidance that the
interest takes priority in planning and licensing in those areas.
Nature values that need to be protected can also be found in other areas. This applies, for
example, to species and habitats protected under the Habitats Directive or Birds Directive
(92/43/EEC, 2009/147/EC).
Environmental monitoring stations or other installations are located at specific locations in the
sea. Due to the scale of the marine spatial plans, the specific locations in the plan maps are not
reported. However, the stations should be taken into account in planning, management and
licensing.
Areas with guidance on particular consideration to the high nature values
Areas designated with particular consideration to high nature values are based on identified
public interests of substantial significance as described above. In areas with particular
consideration to high nature values, there may be special needs for future measures in
management, planning and permitting to ensure ecosystem services linked to the values,
structures and conditions of the areas. Particular consideration of high nature values can mean,
among other things, that activities are adapted to locations and time periods that minimize direct,
indirect or cumulative damage to nature values. This may include, for example:
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• that the Swedish Armed Forces, when planning their activities, consult with municipalities
and county administrative boards on local conditions and adapt exercises and activities to
locations and time periods so that high nature values are not damaged
• adaptation in design and technology of energy extraction facilities or adaptation of civil
works and operations to specific periods of time
• introduction or extension of marine area protection
• fishing regulations relating to areas, gears or time for catching
• adaptation of speed, maximum draught or time of maritime traffic.
Nature values to consider can also be found in other areas. This applies, for example, to species
and habitats protected under the Habitats Directive or birdss Directive.
Sand extraction
Recommendation indicating the most suitable use
Sand extraction
Sand extraction area; Conditions for sand extraction and good availability for
vessels during extraction shall be maintained.
Investigation area sand extraction
Area with good conditions for sand extraction where further investigation is required
to determine whether the use of sand extraction is the most suitable use.
Needs
Removal of nature gravel on land shall be reduced as part of securing Sweden’s groundwater
and meeting the environmental quality objective ‘Good quality groundwater’. Nature gravel builds
up many groundwater and drinking water reservoirs and often has high nature and cultural
values. Crushed rock is the main replacement material for nature gravel in the effort to reduce the
extraction of nature gravel. There are some applications, such as to the fine fraction in concrete,
where it is currently costly or requires a lot of energy to produce replacement material from
crushed rock and generates residues. In these applications, marine sand and gravel can replace
nature gravel from land.
Marine sand and gravel can also be used to counteract the coastal erosion that occurs along
some coastal sections in southern Sweden. The fact that the sand is extracted close to where it is
to be used is beneficial in view of the costs and environmental effects of long journeys.
Areas of national interest claims
Findings containing valuable substances or materials can be identified as a national interest claim
under Chapter 3, Section 7 of the Environmental Code. It is the Geological Survey of Sweden,
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SGU, that can point out the claims of national interest. There are no national interest claims for
sand in the marine spatial plan areas.
Areas of public interest of substantial significance
Based on a government assignment, the Geological Survey of Sweden has identified areas
where there are opportunities for environmentally sustainable extraction of marine sand and
gravel of the right quality. Environmental sustainability is assessed on several aspects: (Sveriges
geologiska undersökning 2017)
• The area must not be too close to the coastline as this risks changes in sediment
dynamics, which can cause increased coastal erosion.
• Sunlight exposed shallow biologically productive and sensitive areas shall be avoided.
• Biodiversity shall be preserved and ecosystems in and around the quarry shall not be
affected to such an extent that the ability to deliver ecosystem services is lost or
irreversibly reduced.
The identified areas are considered in the marine spatial planning process to be public interests
of substantial significance as sand extraction in the sea is considered important in the work on
climate adaptation, in order to achieve environmental quality objectives and for the supply of
materials.
Areas for the use sand extraction in the marine spatial plans
The areas designated for the use sand extraction are based on areas of public interest of
substantial significance identified in the marine spatial plan process. The areas designated as
suitable for sand extraction in the marine spatial plans need to be further investigated in which
parts of the areas such as sustainable extraction can be made possible, on the basis of the data
produced by the Geological Survey of Sweden and the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water
Management.
When areas are designated for use sand extraction, this means guidance that interest takes
priority in planning and licensing in those areas. Areas need to be carefully evaluated, including
physical, cultural and biological aspects, before a quarrying operation can take place. Continuous
evaluation using suitable control programmes is also necessary.
Most of the area designated as areas for sand extraction in marine spatial plans is located in
southern Sweden, where the consumption of nature gravel is high while the availability of nature
gravel on land is limited. Southern Sweden is expected to continue to have expansionary
construction. The marine conditions, relatively low transport costs to consumable areas and high
costs for other substitute materials justify sand extraction as a use in parts of the marine areas.
Another motive is the need for sand to counteract coastal erosion in southern Sweden.
Areas of the Marine spatial plans with an investigation area for sand extraction
In areas where sand extraction is expected to require a so-called Natura 2000 permit under
Chapter 7, Section 28a of the Environmental Code, the area is designated as an investigation
area for sand extraction.
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Shipping
Recommendation indicating the most suitable use
Shipping
Area of particular importance for maritime transport. Conditions for shipping
operations shall be maintained and road safety with sufficient room for manoeuvre
shall be taken into account.
Investigation area for shipping
Area for further investigation to determine whether the use of shipping is the most
suitable use
Needs
The overall transport policy objective is to ensure a socio-economically efficient and long-term
sustainable transport supply for citizens and businesses throughout the country. Efficient,
sustainable and high-capacity freight transport is a priority for the Government. Some of the
objectives of the National Transport System Plan 2022-2033 are to promote the shift of freight
from road to rail and maritime transport, to reduce the environmental impact of the transport
sector and to create the conditions for the development of tomorrow’s transport system. Shipping
is of great importance for a functioning supply of goods and services to Sweden, which is also
relevant for total defence.
Areas of national interest claims
The Swedish Transport Administration identifies areas of national interest claims for maritime
transport in accordance with Chapter 3, Section 8 of the Environmental Code.
Areas of public interest of substantial significance
Routes that constitute particularly important links between Sweden and neighbouring countries
are considered to be important public interests.
Areas with the use shipping in the marine spatial plans
The areas designated for the use shipping are based on national interest claims for transport and
in the marine spatial planning process identified areas of public interest of substantial significance
for shipping. Shipping is carried out in all marine areas. However, due to various factors, large
parts of international traffic, in particular, with larger vessels, take place on certain demarcated
routes. These lines are merely recommendations. Vessel traffic of very great importance to
Sweden can occur and thus also occurs outside the routes indicated as use shipping in marine
spatial plans.
That areas are designated for the use shipping entails guidance that the interest takes priority in
planning and licensing in those areas. These areas represent the routes that are most important
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for the maintenance and development of efficient, safe and accessible maritime transport, but do
not limit shipping to these routes. Shipping as a whole has a much larger surface language than
the route of the plan map in order to function well.
The fact that shipping has access to and uses other areas is a prerequisite for the routes
identified in the marine spatial plans to have such a limited geographical area. Vessels have the
right of innocent passage through the territorial sea under the law of the sea. International
shipping is regulated in particular by the International Maritime Organization (IMO).
Several wind farms in the same marine area may pose a risk of cumulative impacts on the
mobility and safety of shipping when the available space is limited. That risk shall be taken into
account.
In the Gulf of Bothnia there are special conditions in winter with thick and extensive sea ice. This
affects the conditions for shipping, which needs large areas to ensure accessibility. This should
be taken into account when establishing wind energy and other fixed installations at sea. There is
a lack of comprehensive knowledge about how offshore wind energy affects ice formation,
conditions for icebreaking and winter navigation.
There shall be a safety distance between a wind farm and a shipping lane or fairway. The size of
the safety distance depends on the traffic on the route, but also on the geographical
conditions(Sjöfartsverket and Transportstyrelsen 2023). When designing the energy areas,
planning the safety distance is generally included in the surface of the energy area. The safety
distance is therefore not reported in the plan map. The location of the wind farm and the distance
needed in an individual project are determined in the permit process for the wind farm. The
marine spatial plan does not provide guidance on specific safety distances.
Areas with the use investigation area for shipping
Where there are areas with the use investigation area for shipping, it needs to be further
investigated whether shipping is the most suitable use. It is indicated where more than one use
has claims in the same area and more investigation of the needs of the uses in question on the
spot is required before a decision on the most suitable use can be made. The national interest
claim for shipping remains even if the national interest claim corresponds to the investigation area
of shipping T he use investigation area for shipping is also indicated where there is insufficient
evidence to delimit the closer route of use.
Commercial fishing
Recommendation indicating the most suitable use
Commercial fishing
Commercial fishing area. Conditions for engaging in commercial fishing shall be
maintained. Good availability of commercial fishing vessels to ports and fishing
areas suitable to seasonal and annual variations shall be taken into account.
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Needs
Commercial fishing is a maritime industry with importance for food security and food production.
Commercial fishing also creates land-based jobs in port operations and the processing industry,
contributing to viable archipelago communities that maintain identity and cultural environment.
Maintaining sustainable food production with food of high nutritional value is important for society.
Fish from our local area makes a significant contribution to our food security. The needs require
that good environmental status in the sea is achieved and maintained and that the ecosystem
services on which fishing depends are ensured. Commercial fishing requires relatively large
areas because different fishing methods and target species mean different fishing areas that
change between different seasons, from year to year and over a longer period of time.
Areas of national interest claims
The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management identifies areas of national interest
claims for commercial fishing in terms of catch areas and landing ports in accordance with
Chapter 3, Section 5 of the Environmental Code. In 2024, the Swedish Agency for Marine and
Water Management is working on a review and updating of ports with a national interest in
commercial fishing.
Areas of marine spatial plans used for commercial fishing
The use of commercial fishing is mainly based on national interest claims regarding fishing areas.
A small part of an area in the Skagerrak is based on public interest of substantial significance for
commercial fishing.
National interest claims for commercial fishing regarding spawning and nursery areas are
included in the use nature in the marine spatial plans. Potentially important areas for fish habitats
outside areas of national interest claims are included in areas with guidance on particular
consideration to high nature values.
The way in which commercial fishing is conducted and the gear used may change in the future,
for example due to stock changes or technical development of gear. It may also be changed by
the introduction of restrictions relating to a specific fishery or fishing method.
That areas are designated for the use commercial fishing entails means guidance that the interest
takes priority in planning and licensing in those areas. Commercial fishing is also carried out in
other areas and when assessing permits, it is therefore important to seek up-to-date information
about fishing in the area in question.
Data and telecommunication cables
The laying of data and telecommunications cables, power cables, pipelines and gas pipelines
shall be enabled where suitable. The operation and maintenance of data and telecommunications
cables, power cables, pipelines and gas pipelines shall always be possible. This applies to the
entire planning area. There are no areas specified for data and telecommunication cables in the
marine spatial plans.
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There is a lack of overall sector planning for data and telecommunications cables. Sites for the
closure of such cables should be reconciled early in the design of cable laying to reduce conflicts
with other claims.
Geological storage of carbon dioxide
It is estimated that there is significant carbon dioxide storage capacity in Sweden and within the
Swedish exclusive economic zone (Sveriges geologiska undersökning 2016). However, more
data and knowledge are needed before any areas for storage can be proposed in marine spatial
plans.
Aquaculture
At present, there is no comprehensive national mapping of possible geographical development
areas for aquaculture in the plan area. In the Swedish Board of Agriculture’s and the Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management’s action plan for the development of Swedish
aquaculture 2021-2026, a measure aims to facilitate the identification and planning of suitable
areas for various forms of sustainable aquaculture(Jordbruksverket 2021). New planning data
together with developed cultivation technology can in the long term contribute to better planning
conditions for aquaculture in the plan area. At this stage, marine spatial plans create
preparedness for aquaculture, but do not designate specifically demarcated areas dedicated to
aquaculture.
2.4. Guidance on coexistence
Marine spatial plans shall promote coexistence between different activities and uses. The
inclusion of coexistence in marine spatial plans creates flexibility and encourages activities for
mutual adaptation and development. Coexistence can also lead to synergies. The considerations
below aim to guide how coexistence can work and explain how marine spatial plans relate to
coexistence between the different uses listed. They are grouped under two headings depending
on the degree of alignment usually deemed necessary for coexistence – some alignment and
more alignment. For example, in order for coexistence to work, certain activities may need to be
regulated further or specific conditions imposed by licensing authorities. It may also involve
special regulations that may be needed to achieve the purpose of the marine spatial plans and
which the Government decides on pursuant to Chapter 4, Section 10, second paragraph, of the
Environmental Code.
Coexistence between uses can be deemed to be possible in one place while in another it is not
deemed to work. Similarly, coexistence can be assessed as possible from an overall perspective
but not within the time horizon of planning or in a specific location (co-location). When
applications are deemed not to be able to co-exist within a geographical area, an interest is given
priority.
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Figure 2.4-1 Example of how coexistence can look like in the plan map. The plan map shows coexistence by overlapping uses.
In the Ö222 area, the uses defence (F), nature (N), recreation (lines) and shipping (darker blue fields) coexist.
Where coexistence may require some adaptation
Defence and shipping
Marine spatial plans indicate the coexistence of defence and shipping. Shipping can often be
carried out without restriction within a maritime training area. During defence exercises, a naval
training area may need to be temporarily intercepted.
Defence and commercial fishing
Marine spatial plans indicate the coexistence of defence and commercial fishing. Commercial
fishing can often be carried out without restriction in a defence area. During defence exercises, a
naval training area may need to be temporarily intercepted. However, defence exercises can
affect the resources of commercial fishing through fishing mortality and impact on spawning and
nursery areas.
Cultural environment and nature
The marine spatial plans indicate the coexistence of the cultural environment and nature. Cultural
environments are often well integrated into nature. Conservation efforts, such as the
management of marine litter and the removal of lost fishing gear, can damage ancient remains if
carried out with careless methods. Wrecks can in some cases constitute a cultural value while at
the same time having a negative impact on the environment.
Cultural environment and recreation
The marine spatial plans indicate the coexistence of the cultural environment and recreation.
Cultural environments are often part of the values that form the basis of outdoor life or make an
area attractive to visitors. This contributes to synergies, but a high intensity of visits can also have
a negative impact on the cultural environment. There is great value in making cultural heritage
available underwater, including for divers. However, diving and other outdorr activity such as
sport fishing and boating, can pose a risk of damaging the cultural environment underwater.
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Nature and recreation
The marine spatial plans indicate the coexistence of nature and recreation. Nature is often part of
the values that form the basis of outdoor life or make an area attractive to visitors. This
contributes to synergies, but a high intensity of visits can also have an impact on nature values.
Exploitation of scenic sites for tourism activities, as well as recreational fishing and noise from
recreational boats, personal watercraft and other activities, may conflict with nature conservation
interests.
Recreation and sand extraction
Sand extraction can have a negative impact on nature values, which in turn can change the
conditions for outdoor recreation. At the same time, increased traffic when removing the sand can
negatively affect the conditions for recreation. However, sand extraction, and therefore transport,
usually takes place during limited periods.
Recreation and commercial fishing
The marine spatial plans indicate the coexistence of recreation and commercial fishing.
Commercial fishing forms the basis for coastal fishing communities that are attractive for
recreation. Conflicts of interest may exist between recreational fishing and commercial fishing if
one wants to fish in the same place with gear that does not work together or through competition
of the fishing resource.
Sand extraction and shipping
The marine spatial plans indicate the coexistence of sand extraction and shipping. Sand
extraction can generate some traffic and create obstacles to the accessibility of shipping.
However, sand extraction takes place during limited periods, which means that the impact is
limited.
Maritime transport and commercial fishing
Marine spatial plans usually indicate the coexistence of shipping and commercial fishing.
Commercial fishing with mobile gear often works with some adaptation in marine areas, but can
sometimes be made more difficult by intensive vessel traffic or traffic separation.
Where coexistence may require more adaptation
Energy extraction and defence
Energy extraction and defence interests are difficult to combine in many areas, as wind farms can
have a major impact on the Swedish Armed Forces' facilities and operations. Wind energy
installations can affect the Swedish Armed Forces' fixed and airborne systems as well as
underwater sensors by causing acoustic disturbances and blockages and reflections of the
electromagnetic signals used by radar systems and radio links. The high altitudes and obstacle
lighting of wind turbines can also have a negative impact on aviation.
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In neighbouring countries, it has been possible to combine defence interests with energy
extraction by other means, either by banning energy extraction in limited areas, by technological
solutions or by combining interests(Odell et al. 2022).
For all energy areas, the marine spatial plan gives particular consideration to the interests of total
defence.
Energy extraction and cultural environment
Offshore energy installations can have a negative impact on cultural heritage and landscapes.
The effect can also occur at night in the dark due to obstacle lighting. Large-scale wind farms
near the coast may dominate a site and thereby affect the values that show important historical
events and that previously gave the site its character. Installations such as foundations or cables
on the seabed can have a negative impact on ancient monuments if the bottom is not examined
carefully and adaptations are made. In the construction phase, the impact area on the seabed
can be significantly larger than the actual exploitation area. Permits from the county
administrative board may be required for activities that risk affecting ancient monuments.
Archaeological investigation and examination may be required. These can contribute to an
increased knowledge of marine cultural heritage values.
Localisation and adaptation measures such as height and obstacle lighting in the design of
energy facilities can limit negative impacts. In areas of national interest under Chapter 4, Section
3 of the Environmental Code, wind energy subject to a permit is not permitted, with the exception
of Öland. In such areas, marine spatial plans do not specify energy extraction.
Energy extraction and nature
The assessment of the possibility of coexistence is made from a holistic perspective that also
takes into account the cumulative effects of energy areas or other planned activities in the vicinity
from a long-term perspective. When granting a permit for an activity that may have a significant
impact on a Natura 2000 site, an assessment shall be made as to whether the activity complies
with the provisions of Chapter 7, Sections 28b-29 of the Environmental Code. Permit assessment
takes place at a more detailed level than MSP's comprehensive assessments.
Energy extraction in the form of offshore wind farms can have a negative impact on birds and
bats, mammals and the sea floor environment. During the construction phase, underwater noise
usually arises from piling and traffic that can negatively affect wildlife. During the operational
phase, noises occur that may affect wildlife. The plant itself may be an obstacle to birds or bats.
During the decommissioning phase, underwater noise usually arises from work and traffic, which
can have a negative impact on wildlife. Cables and anchoring along the bottom can damage
valuable nature environments, and electrical cables that generate electromagnetic fields can
affect marine organisms to varying degrees. At the same time, wind turbines can be artificial reefs
that create protected feeding grounds for fish.
More knowledge is needed if wind energy installations can affect hydrography. According to
model studies, offshore wind energy can affect the vertical mixing of the water in the Baltic
Sea(Arneborg et al. 2024). Offshore wind energy can use various protective measures to reduce
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the impact on nature values. Examples include demand-based obstruction lighting, location and
design adaptations, noise-reducing measures for civil works and seasonal adaptations for
construction, operation and decommissioning. Such measures may lead to the possibility of
coexistence.
Energy extraction and recreation
Energy establishments can affect the experience values that exist in the landscape. This may
involve the influence of sound, light and shadows from wind turbines and visual impact on the
landscape in the form of, for example, an unobstructed view of the horizon being broken. Energy
areas can reduce the availability of marine areas that are attractive from the point of view of
outdoor life. Energy areas can at the same time be landmarks and tourist destinations.
Recreational fishing can be negatively affected by reduced availability of fishing areas while wind
turbines can constitute artificial reefs that create good conditions for fish. Localisation and
adaptation measures such as height and obstacle lighting in the design of energy facilities can
limit negative impacts.
Energy extraction and sand extraction
Energy extraction with wind turbines may need a stable foundation for foundations. In sand
extraction, sand is sucked or dug up from the bottom, the stability of which then changes. Sand
extraction is also dependent on transport accessibility. In the marine spatial plans, energy
extraction and sand extraction areas are not overlapping.
Energy extraction and shipping
In essence, in the marine spatial plans, energy extraction and shipping lanes are not overlapping.
The interest given priority depends on which of the uses is judged to be most suitable in the
specific location and whether the needs are judged to be met elsewhere. In several places, the
accessibility of shipping is considered to be ensured in nearby areas, provided that sufficient
safety distances are available.
In several cases, it is possible to adapt the design of the wind farms in such a way that the
accessibility and safety of shipping is not adversely affected. However, shipping cannot usually
pass through an area with fixed installations such as a wind farm if the area is small or the
turbines are dense. Sea cables can affect the possibilities for emergency anchorage and
therefore come into conflict with shipping, especially in busy shipping lanes. There is also a
special need for improved knowledge regarding the impact of offshore wind energy on ice
formation and conditions for icebreaking and winter navigation in the Gulf of Bothnia.
Energy extraction and commercial fishing
Offshore wind energy makes navigation and commercial fishing in the area more difficult. Floating
wind energy is not expected to coexist with commercial fishing. Installation of bottom-fixed
foundations makes it difficult to use both active and passive tools to different degrees. Pelagic
commercial fishing is not considered to be able to coexist with bottom-fixed foundations.
Adaptation of the wind farm design or fishing gear may affect the possibilities for coexistence.
International examples have shown a reduction in fishing even in adapted wind farms.
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Developments in both legal and technical matters are needed to promote coexistence (Havs- och
vattenmyndigheten 2023).
Defence and cultural environment
Marine spatial plans usually indicate the coexistence of defence and cultural environments. In the
sea, defence activities can entail the risk of negative impact on cultural relics and cultural
landscapes on the seabed. Defence facilities can at the same time form part of the cultural-
historical heritage of the coast.
Defence and nature
Marine spatial plans usually indicate the coexistence of defence and nature. In cases where
coexistence is deemed unsuitable, an interest is given priority. If the site is a Natura 2000 site, the
Environmental Code’s rules on activities in Natura 2000 sites apply. Defence activities can
involve traffic, noise, blasting and other activities that risk having a negative impact on nature
values. Military naval activities may need to be adapted so that damage to nature values is
minimised.
Defence and outdoor life
The marine spatial plans mainly indicate the coexistence of defence and recreation. Defence
activities can involve noise, traffic, blasting, detonation and other activities that risk having a
negative impact on outdoor life. Activities can sometimes be aligned to reduce negative impacts.
Defence and sand extraction
In essence, the marine spatial plans do not specify the coexistence of defence and sand
extraction. Defence activities involving, for example, ammunition residues may render the sand
unfit for extraction.
Cultural environment and sand extraction
Ancient and cultural-historical remains on the seabed can be adversely affected by sand
extraction, which involves changing the seabed. Permits from the county administrative board
may be required for activities that risk affecting ancient monuments. Archaeological investigation
and examination may be required.
Cultural environment and shipping
The marine spatial plans indicate the coexistence of the cultural environment and shipping.
Maritime transport has given rise to several of the cultural environments that we have today, as
well as ancient remains in the form of wrecks. Vessel routes and shipping lanes that are heavily
trafficked can mean emissions, changed landscapes and dredging that negatively affect cultural
values. Shipping can lead to erosion that exposes, grinds and transports away exposed parts of a
remnant. Shipping can also cause shallow remains to be damaged by anchors or ship hulls.
Increased knowledge and information about remnants can reduce the risk of such damage.
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Cultural environment and commercial fishing
Commercial fishing is in many cases an industry that has contributed to valuable cultural
environments, such as fishing communities that are part of the cultural heritage. Fishing with
active gears such as trawling can negatively affect cultural remains on the seabed. Increased
knowledge and information about remnants can reduce the risk of such damage.
Nature and sand extraction
Marine spatial plans usually indicate the coexistence of nature and sand extraction where it is
assessed that such coexistence may be possible. When granting a permit for an activity that may
have a significant impact on a Natura 2000 site, an assessment will be made of whether the
activity is compatible with the provisions of Chapter 7, Sections 28b-29 of the Environmental
Code. Permit assessment takes place at a more detailed level than MSP's comprehensive
assessments. Sand extraction can affect the nature values found in an area, especially if they are
concentrated in the bottom environment. The fact that extraction is local, takes place within short
periods of time and is carried out with relatively gentle technology can limit the impact.
Nature and shipping
Marine spatial plans usually indicate the coexistence of nature and shipping. Shipping can put
pressure on nature in the form of underwater noise, dredging, erosion, emissions and oil spills. At
the same time, maritime transport, if optimised, can represent a climate-efficient means of
transport compared to other means of transport. Maritime routes may need to be adapted to
reduce the impact on nature values and maritime safety needs to be ensured to avoid accidents.
Nature and commercial fishing
Marine spatial plans usually indicate the coexistence of nature and commercial fishing. Fishing
can have a major impact on marine ecosystems, primarily on the species intended to be caught,
but also on other species and habitats that may need to be protected. Commercial fishing carried
out with active gears such as bottom trawls or involving by-catch of protected and threatened
species can have a negative impact on nature values. In some cases, commercial fishing does
not have an impact, and there are often opportunities to adapt fishing methods so that the impact
on nature values is limited. Adaptation of fishing methods is a common measure in fisheries
management's regulatory work, but there are also many other ways of adapting commercial
fishing to the needs of nature conservation. In some cases, fishing is not allowed.
Recreation and shipping
The marine spatial plans mainly indicate the coexistence of recreation and shipping. Shipping is
in many cases an industry that has contributed to environments that are attractive to visit.
Shipping can also contribute to good accessibility. However, ship routes that are heavily trafficked
can cause disturbances such as noise and emissions or constitute barriers to, for example,
recreational fishing and pleasure boating.
45
Sand extraction and commercial fishing
Marine spatial plans usually indicate the coexistence of sand extraction and commercial fishing.
Sand extraction affects the bottom environment, which in turn can affect fish habitats and thus the
fish stocks used by commercial fishing. However, the impact is usually local and limited in time,
which in some cases may allow for adaptation, for example by avoiding periods when the area is
important for the fish, such as during spawning.
46
3. Gulf of Bothnia: Guidance and considerations
General information about the marine spatial plan area
Here is a summary of the main features of the planning for the marine spatial plan area. The
direction of use and considerations for the marine areas of the marine spatial plan area are also
reported.
The plan map shall be interpreted on the approximate scale between 1:700 000 and 1:1 000 000.
The boundaries and markings in the map reflect the strategic level of the marine spatial plans.
The laying of data and telecommunications cables, power cables, pipelines and gas pipelines
shall be enabled where suitable. The operation and maintenance of data and telecommunications
cables, power cables, pipelines and gas pipelines shall always be possible. This applies to the
entire planning area.
There are three marine areas in the Gulf of Bothnia:
• Gulf of Bothnia
• Northern Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken
• South Bothnian Sea.
Renewable electricity production
The marine spatial plans will contribute to achieving the society's goal of 100 per cent fossil-free
electricity production by 2040. The conditions for energy production in the form of wind farms in
the Gulf of Bothnia differ to some extent from other marine spatial plan areas. Conflicts of interest
with nature and commercial fishing are generally lower and shipping is also less intense in these
marine areas. The Bothnian Bay receives ice winters every year and even in so-called mild ice
winters, sea ice is formed in principle throughout the marine area. This affects the conditions for
shipping, which needs large areas and access to alternative shipping routes to ensure
accessibility. Fixed installations such as wind farms therefore pose a particular challenge for
winter navigation, as they risk limiting the flexibility considered necessary for accessibility. This
shall be taken into account when establishing wind energy and other fixed installations at sea.
Wind conditions are slightly worse in the Gulf of Bothnia compared to the Baltic Sea and the
Skagerrak/Kattegat, but still generally good. In some areas of the Gulf of Bothnia, however, there
is such strong competition between wind farms and other uses, such as various nature values or
defence interests, that coexistence is not deemed achievable.
The starting point for the planning has been updated data for new or changed areas for energy
extraction in the marine spatial plans (Energimyndigheten 2023). The planning of energy
extraction areas is based on an overall assessment of how the marine spatial plan can best
contribute to achieving the energy targets. Areas with energy extraction are proposed both in the
lake and in more coastal areas. A total of 13 energy extraction areas or investigation areas for
energy extraction areas are listed in the Gulf of Bothnia. Some proposed areas are affected by
Natura 2000 legislation, which means that wind farms can only be allowed there if they do not risk
- 47 -
damaging or disturbing the habitats that the site is intended to protect or cause disturbance to the
species to be protected that could significantly hamper the conservation of the species in the site.
Three of the proposed energy extraction areas in the Gulf of Bothnia are designated as research
areas. This is due to uncertainties about the impact of wind energy on bird migration routes.
Close to the coast beyond the boundaries of the marine spatial plan, offshore wind energy at a
limited extent may be suitable. Smaller, coastal establishments need to be assessed from a local
perspective. Due to the overall scale of the marine spatial plan, energy extraction is not assessed
for very small areas.
When developing energy, particular consideration shall be given to the interests of total defence.
Proposed areas with the use energy extraction in the Gulf of Bothnia entail the risk of cumulative
effects on the interests of total defence. This risk shall be taken into account, which may limit the
extent of the development, collectively or in individual areas. In all proposed areas of energy use,
particular consideration is therefore given to the interests of total defence. With the exception of
four energy areas, particular consideration is given to high cultural heritage values in all energy
areas. The values are based on places on land and ancient and cultural remains on the seabed
that can be affected by installations at sea. In some of the areas, particular consideration is also
given to high nature values. This means that there is a special need for future measures in
management, planning and licensing to ensure ecosystem services linked to the values,
structures and conditions of the areas.
Good conditions for different activities
The Gulf of Bothnia is the marine spatial plan area that is the least affected by human impact,
while the environmental status still needs to be improved in order to achieve good environmental
status. There are large areas with high outdoor and nature values and good conditions for various
activities. Many large and important industries are located and developed in northern Sweden,
which use the sea route for their transport. In large parts of the Gulf of Bothnia, there are areas
with good conditions for fossil-free energy extraction in the form of offshore wind energy. There is
an area in the northern Gulf of Bothnia that may be suitable for the extraction of sand. Sweden's
total defence has interests in the marine spatial plan area, including a naval training area in the
northern Bothnian Sea and impact areas in the Bothnian Bay for activities on land.
Many activities in the Gulf of Bothnia are considered to work well together, i.e. they can coexist.
Sometimes, however, coexistence has to be regulated in order to work. For example, areas may
be intercepted during defence exercises or rules on how vessels, such as fishing vessels, may
operate in fairways that are part of traffic separation systems. Such regulations do not take place
through the marine spatial plan, but can be found in other legislation. Adaptations and
coexistence solutions between winter navigation and large-scale offshore energy production need
to be developed.
World Heritage Sites, small-Scale fisheries and valuable Nature
The High Coast World Heritage Site is a nature world heritage site with mainly geological values
where the land uplift and ice age characterized the landscape. Together with the Kvarken
Archipelago on the Finnish side, they form a geological whole and a cross-border World Heritage
Site. The high coast is well visited by tourists all year round, but mainly in the summer, when tour
48
boats and pleasure boats come to the ports in the area. In early autumn, the fermented Baltic
herring (surströmming in Swedish) premiere takes place, which attracts many visitors.
Commercial fishing in the Gulf of Bothnia is sparse in the outer sea but more frequent in the
coastal waters. There are areas with use commercial fishing in the Southern Bothnian Sea, where
the largest concentration of Swedish commercial fishing in the marine spatial plan area is found.
Fishing may be affected by proposed energy areas. Commercial fishing in the plan is based
solely on fishing from Swedish vessels, but also extensive Finnish fishing is conducted. Swedish
and Finnish fisheries often coincide geographically. In the areas affected by national interest
claims for commercial fishing in the Gulf of Bothnia's marine spatial plan area, no overlapping
energy areas are proposed.
There are large areas with high nature values and several of them are nature reserves, Natura
2000 area or national interest claims for commercial fishing related to spawning and nursery area
for fish. These are designated as nature use in the marine spatial plan. In addition to these, there
are areas of high nature value that need particular consideration in order to continue to contribute
to valuable ecosystem services. Other operations need to pay particular consideration to the high
nature values. There are bord routes across the marine spatial plan area. The plan area It houses
shallow areas for foraging seabirds. In the Bothnian Bay there is a unique population of seals
where the population is stable, but the species has been exposed to environmental toxins and the
reproduction rate is weakened.
Reindeer herding is carried out along the coast and in the archipelago outside the boundaries of
the marine plan area of the Gulf of Bothnia, and there are several areas of national interest claims
for reindeer husbandry. On the coast there are reindeer pastures that can be affected by land and
water claims outside the marine spatial plan area linked to uses in the marine spatial plan, but
also indirectly through the influence of light and sound.
49
Plan map for the Gulf of Bothnia
Map 1 Plan map for the Gulf of Bothnia
50
3.1. Bothnian bay
Energy extraction
In the Bothnian Bay, there are good conditions for energy extraction, while the need for electricity
is high, partly due to major industrial investments. There are four energy extraction areas in the
Bothnian Bay
In the northernmost part of the Gulf of Bothnia there is an area with energy use, Southeast
Malören (B111) which is partly located in the territorial sea within the municipality of Kalix and
partly in the exclusive economic zone. Bottom-fixed foundations are possible considering the
depth, During ice winters, the area is used for icebreaking and ship traffic to Swedish and Finnish
ports (Ringsberg et al. 2024) and the impact on winter navigation needs to be taken into account.
The area is designated with particular consideration to the interests of the total defence and
particular consideration to high nature values regarding both fish spawning and seals occurring in
the area. The area is also designated with particular consideration to to high cultural heritage
values. The coastal and archipelago area includes the cultural environments Malören, Sandskär
and Haparanda archipelago with well-preserved fishing villages as well as lighthouse and pilot
sites (Länsstyrelserna 2024). The Haparanda Archipelago is also a national park and is covered
by landscape protection. Several areas are also covered by national interest claims for cultural
heritage conservation. Cultural and historical remains on the seabed can be directly affected and
need to be taken into account. In the area, measurement activities need to be taken into account
in the national pelagic environmental monitoring.
In the open sea outside Piteå, Southeast Svalan and Falkens Grund (B113) there is an area with
use of energy extraction. The area has been adapted in the northern part with reference primarily
to the potential impact on winter navigation. In the area, mainly floating foundations are suitable
with regard to depth, but bottom-fixed foundations may be relevant in the area in the future.
During ice winters, the area is used for icebreaking and ship traffic to Swedish and Finnish ports
(Ringsberg et al. 2024) and the impact on winter navigation needs to be taken into account. The
area is defined with particular consideration to the interests of total defence. The area is also
subject to particular consideration to high cultural heritage values. At Rödkallen located in the
archipelago, the cultural environment includes a well-preserved fishing village as well as
lighthouse and pilot site (Länsstyrelserna 2024) which is also a national interest claim for the
cultural environment conservation.
In area B112 there is a public interest of substantial significance for wind energy. Energy
extraction is not indicated as use taking into account an overall impact on the cultural
environment, outdoor life, winter navigation and nature values linked to the presence of ringed
seals. In the area there are national interest claims for shipping and public interest of substantial
significance for nature. In the coastal and archipelago there is a national interest in moving
outdoor life, a national interest in outdoor life and conservation of the cultural environment, as
well as a general interest of substantial significance for the cultural environment. Outdoor
recreation interests extend into the area.
Outside Piteå and Luleå there are both national interest claims and public interest of substantial
significance for wind energy (B104, B105). An area of influence for the defence extends into the
51
marine area and there are national interest claims for shipping and public interest of substantial
significance for sand extraction and nature. In the coastal and archipelago area, there is national
interest in outdoor recreation and national interest claims for outdoor life as well as national
interest claims and public interest of substantial significance for cultural heritage conservation.
Energy extraction is not indicated as use because it is deemed not to be compatible with the
other uses in the marine area and with an overall consideration of coastal and nature values
linked to the presence of seals. Is a
In the southern part of the Bothnian Bay marine area, there an area with the use energy
extraction in coastal region (B108) and in the open sea (B135).
Rata Storgrund is a coastal area located in Robertsfors municipality. The area is considered to
have good conditions for the establishment of offshore wind. In the area, bottom-fixed foundations
are judged suitable to the depth. Part of area B108 consists of an area (with the same number
B108) for energy extraction in the previously adopted marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia in
2022(Regeringen 2022a). The area is defined with particular consideration to the interests of total
defence. The area is also defined with particular consideration to high nature values, which
includes fish spawning area and reef environment, as well as bat and bird area. Rata Storgrund
(B135) is a larger area located in the exclusive economic zone outside Robertsfors and Umeå
municipalities. The area is considered to have good conditions for the establishment of energy
extraction. In most of the area, it is considered suitable to have bottom-fixed foundations taking
into account the depth. The area is defined with particular consideration to the interests of total
defence. During ice winters, the area is used for icebreaking and ship traffic to Swedish and
Finnish ports (Ringsberg et al. 2024) and the impact on winter navigation needs to be taken into
account. Areas B108 and B135 are both subject to particular consideration to high cultural
heritage values. In the coastal and archipelago area are Holmögadd, Holmön-Stora Fjäderägg,
Ängesön and Ratan with communication environments, coastal and archipelago environments
and ancient relic environments(Länsstyrelserna 2024). These areas are also covered by national
interest claims for cultural heritage conservation. Cultural and historical remains on the seabed
can be directly affected and need to be taken into account.
Within B106 there are several national interest claims and areas of substantial significance for
wind energy. Energy extraction is not indicated as use in view of the overall impact on the cultural
environment, outdoor life, shipping and nature values. Within the marine spatial plan there are
national interest claims for shipping. In the coastal and archipelago there are national interest
claims and public interest of substantial significance for the cultural environment as well as
national interest claims for outdoor life. There are also important bird migration routes nearby.
Recreation
In the northern part of the marine area, the entire coast is covered by national interest for outdoor
recreation and national interest claims for recreation. The national interest and the national
interest claim extend into the marine spatial plan area. The marine spatial plan specifies the use
of recreation (B102-B105, B112). The coast of Lövånger is also covered by national interest
claims for outdoor life. The possibility of coexistence with other uses and consideration distances
needs to be assessed from a local perspective. Any wind energy installation will have a visual
impact on the area.
52
Defence
The marine spatial plan indicates the use of defence at the Tåme firing range in Skellefteå
municipality, as it has an impact area that extends into the marine spatial plan area (B105).
Particular consideration to the interests of the total defence is given at the air training area at
Kallax (B102–B103), where a smaller part of a stop area for high objects extends into the marine
spatial plan area. When developing energy, particular consideration shall be given to the interests
of total defence. Particular consideration to the interests of total defence is therefore given for all
areas with the us energy extraction (B108, B111, B113, B135).
Cultural environment
Areas of national interest for cultural conservation are located along the coast and in the
archipelago outside the boundary of the marine spatial plan area. Marine cultural heritage values
have been identified by the county administrative boards and can be found both in the
archipelago landscape in the northern part of the Bothnian Bay and along the coasts further
south. The cultural environments include fishing villages, ancient sites, communication
environments and coastal and archipelago environments. (Länsstyrelserna 2024) In the northern
part of the marine area there are, among other things, Haparanda Archipelago and Malören with
well-preserved fishing villages and many ancient remains associated with fishing and seal
hunting. The Haparanda Archipelago is also covered by landscape protection. Further south there
are coastal and archipelago environments with fishing villages such as Småskären and
Brändöskär and Uddskär. There are also lighthouse and pilot sites such as Rödkallen, Pite-
Rönnskär, Bjuröklubb and Ratan. There are wrecks and ancient and cultural-historical remains on
the seabed in large parts of the marine area, which requires consideration in the event of any
impact on the seabed.
The marine spatial plan gives particular consideration to high cultural heritage values in all four
energy areas (B108, B111, B113, B135). Consideration distances to value areas, relevant
national interest claims and World Heritage sites need to be assessed from a local perspective,
such as indirect impact on cultural heritage values of energy extraction in coastal areas. This may
mean that measures are taken to minimise direct, indirect and cumulative impacts on the cultural
environment and may consist of specific requirements for the location and design of wind farms
or through specific requirements during the construction phase of a wind farm.
Nature
The marine spatial plan indicates the use nature for the area Marakallen outside Luleå (B103),
which is protected by Natura 2000. Particular consideration to high nature values is given in the
far north (B111, B112) where the consideration refers to fish spawning and ringed seals, and in
parts of Luleå and Piteå municipalities (B102, B104) where the consideration refers to birds, fish
spawning and seals. Particular consideration to high nature values is also given along the coast
from Rata Storgrund up to Bjuröklubb (B106, B108) where the consideration refers to bird and bat
areas, reef environments and fish play areas. Almost the entire national interest claim for nature
conservation at Kinnbäcksfjärden is located outside the marine spatial plane area. A smaller part
of the national interest goes into the marine spatial plan area B105. The national interest is met,
but depending on the overall scale of the marine spatial plan, it does not constitute use in the
marine spatial plan. The is stable winter ice in the Bothnian Bay. The ice forms the basis for
53
photosynthesizing algae and ringed seals need the ice for the cuts to survive. As climate change
reduces the spread of compact drift ice, the northern parts of the Gulf of Bothnia are becoming
increasingly critical. Climate refugia for seals have been identified in close proximity to the marine
spatial plan area along parts of the northern coast (Havs- och vattenmyndigheten 2017c).
Sand extraction
The marine spatial plan specifies the use of sand extraction along the outskirts of Luleå
municipality's outskirts on the foundations of Svalan and Falken (B104). From a risk point of view,
sand extraction is not considered suitable in the adjacent area that extends into the impact area
of the Tåme firing range (B105). Sand extraction needs to take special account of high cultural
heritage values such as wrecks and ancient and cultural remains on the seabed.
Shipping
The marine spatial plan specifies the use of shipping in the open sea and into ports within the
marine area (B102-B106, B112-B113, B136). Several important ports, including Skellefteå and
Luleå, are located along the coast of the Bothnian Bay and maritime traffic is important for
industry in northern Sweden.
The inlets to the ports are often long and run through the shallow archipelago. Account must be
taken of continuous land uplift.
In the Gulf of Bothnia there are special conditions in winter with thick and extensive sea ice. This
affects the conditions for shipping, which needs large areas and access to alternative shipping
routes to ensure accessibility. During ice winters, icebreaking is carried out and often other areas
than summertime are used for vessel traffic, such as B111, B113, B135 (Ringsberg et al. 2024).
Claims for large sea surfaces for fixed installations such as wind farms therefore pose a particular
challenge for winter navigation, as they risk limiting the flexibility considered necessary for
accessibility. This shall be taken into account when establishing wind energy and other fixed
installations at sea. There is a lack of comprehensive knowledge on how offshore wind energy
affects ice formation, conditions for icebreaking and winter navigation (Swedish Maritime
Administration, 2022). The plan map shows the most important shipping routes, not the shipping's
entire need for surfaces. There must be a safety distance adjacent to the shipping lanes. Marine
spatial plans do not provide guidance on specific safety distances to shipping, but distances will
be required for all areas with the use energy extraction. The distance is adapted to local
conditions following risk assessment (Sjöfartsverket och Transportstyrelsen 2023).
Several wind farms in the same marine area may pose a risk of cumulative impacts on the
mobility and safety of shipping when the available space is limited. That risk shall be taken into
account.
Commercial fishing
Commercial fishing is sparse in the open sea of the Bothnian Bay. Most of the fishing is carried
out with passive gear and close to the coast. Autumn fishing for vendace for roe is economically
significant. This fishing takes place near the coast with active gear and mainly outside the marine
54
spatial plan area. In energy area B111, measuring activities within the national pelagic
environmental monitoring needs to be taken into account.
55
Plan map marine area Bothnian Bay
Map 2 Plan map for the Bothnian Bay marine area
56
Area table Gulf of Bothnia
Table 1 Area table Bothnian Bay
Area Applications Particular Priority or special
considerations adaptation for
coexistence
B102 Recreation The interests of total defence
General use High nature values: Ringed
Shipping seal. Fish spawning. Birds.
B103 Recreation The interests of total defence
Nature
Shipping
B104 Recreation High nature values: Ringed Energy extraction is not
General use seal. Fish spawning. Birds. indicated as use.
Sand extraction Reef environment.
Shipping The marine spatial plan does
not specify the use of energy
extraction because it is not
considered to be able to co-
exist with defence, sand
extraction and shipping here.
Claims of national interest
and public interest of
substantial significance for
wind energy overlap with
claims of national interest for
shipping and areas of
influence for total defence.
Public interest of substantial
significance for wind energy
overlaps with an area of
influence for total defence
and public interest of
substantial significance for
sand extraction.
B105 Recreation Defence and shipping are
Defence given priority over energy
Shipping extraction and sand
extraction.
The marine spatial plan gives
priority to the use of defence
and shipping over energy and
sand extraction. The uses are
not expected to co-exist here.
Public interest of substantial
significance for sand
extraction overlaps with
national interest claims for
shipping and the area of
influence for the total
defence.
National interest claims for
wind energy overlap with
national interest claims for
shipping and the area of
influence for total defence.
57
Area Applications Particular Priority or special
considerations adaptation for
coexistence
B106 General use High nature values: Fish Energy extraction is not
Shipping spawning. Bats. Birds. Reef indicated as use.
environment
Energy extraction is not
indicated as use taking into
account the overall impact on
outdoor life, cultural
environment, nature values
and shipping.
Several national interest
claims and areas of
substantial significancefor
wind energy as well as
national interest claims for
shipping are in the area. In
the coastal and archipelago
there are national interest
claims and public interest of
substantial significance for
the cultural environment as
well as national interest
claims for outdoor life. There
are important bird migration
routes nearby.
B108 Energy extraction The interests of total defence The coexistence of shipping
High cultural heritage values: and energy extraction may
Fishing village. require adaptations.
Communication environment.
Coastal and archipelago Conditions for winter
environment. navigation need to be taken
High nature values: Fish into account.
spawning. Bats. Birds. Reef
environment;
B111 Energy extraction The interests of total defence The coexistence of shipping
High cultural heritage values: and energy extraction may
Village or church environment. require adaptations.
Fishing village. Prehistoric
environment. Communication Conditions for winter
environment. Coastal and navigation need to be taken
archipelago environment. into account.
High nature values: Ringed
seal. Fish spawning.
B112 Recreation High nature values: Fish Energy extraction is not
General use spawning. Ringed seal. indicated as use.
Shipping
Energy extraction is not
indicated as use taking into
account the overall impact on
recreational and cultural
heritage values on the coast,
winter navigation and nature
values linked to the presence
of seals.
National interest claims for
shipping and public interest
of substantial significance for
wind energy and nature exist
in the area. In the coastal and
archipelago there is a
national interest for outdoor
recreation, a national interest
58
Area Applications Particular Priority or special
considerations adaptation for
coexistence
claims for recreation and
conservation of the cultural
environment, as well as a
general interest of substantial
significance for the cultural
environment. Outdoor life
interests extend into the area.
B113 Energy extraction The interests of total defence The coexistence of shipping
Shipping High cultural heritage values: and energy extraction may
Village or church environment. require adaptations.
Fishing village. Prehistoric
environment. Communication Conditions for winter
environment. navigation need to be taken
into account.
B135 Energy extraction The interests of total defence The coexistence of shipping
High cultural heritage values: and energy extraction may
Fishing village. require adaptations.
Communication environment.
Coastal and archipelago Conditions for winter
environment. navigation need to be taken
into account.
B136 General use Energy extraction is adapted
Shipping to shipping.
Energy extraction is not
indicated as use taking into
account winter navigation
conditions.
Claims of national interest for
shipping and public interest
of substantial significance for
wind energy.
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3.2. Northern Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken
Energy extraction
In the North Bothnian Sea and the Northern Kvarken there are good conditions for energy
extraction, especially in the southern parts of the marine area.
The North-East Eystrasalt Bank (B161) is an area with the use energy extraction that is located in
the exclusive economic zone outside Sundsvall municipality and is part of a larger area (B160)
that extends into the marine area of the Southern Bothnian Sea. The area is considered to have
good conditions for the establishment of offshore wind. In the western part of the area, floating
foundations are suitable with due to depth and in the eastern part it is possible with bottom-fixed
foundations. The area is considered to be a public interest of substantial significance for wind
energy and is generally considered to have a relatively low degree of conflict with other interests.
The area is defined with particular consideration to the interests of total defence.
Outside Sundsvall, in area B162 there is public interest of substantial significance for wind
energy. Energy extraction is not indicated as use with regard to an overall assessment of energy
extraction potential and the impact on cultural environment and outdoor recreation values on the
coast.
Recreation
At the High Coast there is a national interest for outdoor recreation adjacent to the marine spatial
plane area. Within the planning area south and east of the Holm Islands (B120) there are national
interest claims for recreation. Any wind energy establishment north of the Holm Islands gives a
visual impact in the area (See Energy extraction for marine area Bothnian Bay). Possibility of
coexistence with other uses and consideration distances need to be assessed from a local
perspective
Defence
The marine spatial plan specifies the use of defence for the naval training area Härnön, which
extends from the coast through the territorial sea into the Swedish exclusive economic zone, and
for the impact area for Skärsviken firing range (B123, B127–B129, B132). When developing wind
energy, particular consideration shall be given to the interests of the total defence. Particular
consideration to the interests of total defence is therefore given for all areas with the use energy
extraction (B161).
Cultural environment
The High Coast's World Heritage Site with unique cultural and nature environments extends into
the sea. Along the shoreline of the High Coast there is a concentration of stranded remnants from
continuous human activity for 7000 years. (Riksantikvarieämbetet 2017) For these areas, the
marine spatial plan indicates the use of the cultural environment (B130-B132). On the Finnish
side is the Kvarken Archipelago World Heritage Site. The high coast is also covered by national
interest unbroken coast.
60
Areas of national interest for cultural conservation are located along the coast outside the
boundary of the marine spatial plan area.
Marine cultural heritage values have been identified by the county administrative board and are
located in the northern part of the marine area around the Holm Islands and along the coasts
outside Örnsköldsvik, Härnösand and Sundsvall further south. The dominant cultural
environments are ancient sites, communication environments and fishing villages, but there are
also production environments. (Länsstyrelserna 2024) In the northern part of the marine area
there are, among other things, the value areas Holmön and Stora Fjäderägg, Ängesön and
Holmögadd, which include both remote areas with known wrecks as well as lighthouses and
communication environments. Holmön and Stora Fjäderägg also include national interest claims
for cultural heritage conservation. In addition to the High Coast area, there are also value areas in
the southern part of the coastal area outside Härnösand and Sundsvall that include ancient sites
with coastal cairns as well as wreck areas and fishing villages. There are wrecks and ancient and
cultural-historical remains on the seabed, which requires consideration in the event of impact on
the seabed.
Consideration distances to value areas, relevant national interest claims and World Heritage sites
need to be assessed from a local perspective, such as indirect impact on cultural heritage values
of energy extraction in coastal areas. This may entail that measures are taken to minimise direct,
indirect and cumulative effects on the cultural environment and may consist of specific
requirements for the location and design of wind farms or through specific requirements during
the construction phase of a wind farm.
Nature
The marine spatial plan indicates the use of nature in several areas from the Farmer and the
Southeast quarries in the north to the Wait a Little Foundation in the south. Sydostbrotten (B122)
is covered by both the Natura 2000 area and the nature reserve Örefjärden-Snöanskärgården.
On the High Coast there are national interest claims for nature conservation (B126–B127, B131–
B132). Wait a minute basis (B129) covered by Natura 2000. The foundation has been classified
as one of the most valuable offshore banks in the Gulf (Naturvårdsverket 2006) of Bothnia .
Particular consideration to high nature values is given outside Holmön (B120) and Vallinsgrundet
(B118), which have reef environments, fish play areas and the presence of birds and mammals.
The area at Holmön (B120) also serves as a migration route for birds of prey. (Hansson 2019)
Particular consideration to high nature values is also given for Ulvödjupet (B123, B165). The deep
and relatively untouched bottoms of Ulvödjupet are a unique deep area that has a vibrant bottom
fauna community characterized by ice sea relics. As a whole, the marine area is characterised by
low use and the environmental impact is therefore relatively low with high originality (Havs- och
vattenmyndigheten 2018b). The Natura 2000 site Holmöarna and overlapping nature reserves
and national interest claims for nature conservation are mainly located in the coastal zone, but a
smaller part extends into the marine spatial plan area's boundary with Holmöarna and the coast
(B120). The national interest claim is accommodated, but due to the scale of the marine spatial
plan, the use nature is not indicated in the plan map.
61
Shipping
The marine spatial plan specifies the use shipping for several shipping routes to and from
Northern and South Kvarken (B120, B123, B126-B132, B162, B165). Several important ports are
located along the coast of the North Bothnian Sea. Maritime traffic is important both to the coast
and south via the South Kvarken to the Baltic Sea and north via the Northern Kvarken to both
Swedish and Finnish ports in the Bothnian Bay. Because the winter ice is weather dependent and
moves in an unpredictable way, shipping needs large areas and alternative routes within the Gulf
of Bothnia. This shall be taken into account when establishing wind energy and other fixed
installations at sea. There is a lack of comprehensive knowledge on how offshore wind energy
affects ice formation, conditions for icebreaking and winter navigation (Swedish Maritime
Administration, 2022).
The Northern Quark, which connects the Bothnian Bay with the Bothnian Sea, is very important
for the industry in the north. Through North Kvarken, shipping is conducted for safety reasons in a
traffic separation system (TSS) because the passage is narrow and shallow, which gives shipping
limited room for manoeuvre. Across Kvarken, between Umeå and Vaasa in Finland, European
route 12 runs via ferry line and has maritime use in the plan. Umeå municipality's comprehensive
plan points out a reserve for the future fixed connection between Umeå and Vaasa. The Finnish
marine spatial plan identifies this route and Finland intends to investigate a functional connection.
There is currently no national traffic planning for such a connection on the Swedish side.
The plan map shows the most important shipping routes, not the shipping's entire need for space.
There must be a safety distance adjacent to the shipping lanes. Marine spatial plans do not
provide guidance on specific safety distances to shipping, but distances will be required for all
areas with the use energy extraction. The distance shall be adapted to local conditions according
to risk assessment (Swedish Maritime Administration, Swedish Transport Agency, 2023).
Several wind farms in the same area may pose a risk of cumulative impacts on the mobility and
safety of shipping when the available space is limited. That risk shall be taken into account.
Commercial fishing
Fishing is limited, with passive gear close to the coast. Some pelagic fishing takes place in the
south.
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Plan map marine area Northern Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken
Map 3 Plan map for the Northern Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken marine area
63
Area table Northern Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken
Table 2 Area table Northern Bothnian Sea and Northern Kvarken
Area Applications Particular Priority or special adaptation for
considerations coexistence
B118 General use High nature values:
Mammals. Fish
spawning. Birds. Reef
environment;
B120 Recreation High nature values:
General use Mammals. Fish
Shipping spawning. Birds. Reef
environment;
B122 Nature
B123 Defence High nature values:
Shipping Deep soft bottom. reef
environment.
B126 Nature
Shipping
B127 Defence
Nature
Shipping
B128 Defence
Shipping
B129 Defence
Nature
Shipping
B130 Cultural
environment
Shipping
B131 Cultural
environment
Nature
Shipping
B132 Defence
Cultural
environment
Nature
Shipping
B161 Energy extraction The interests of total The coexistence of shipping and energy
defence extraction may require adaptations.
Conditions for winter navigation need to be
taken into account.
B162 General use Energy extraction is not indicated as use.
Shipping
Energy extraction is not indicated as use
based on an assessment of the energy
extraction potential and taking into account
outdoor recreation and cultural environment
values on the coast.
There is a public interest of substantial
significance for wind energy in the area. In the
coastal area there are national interest claims
and public interest of substantial significance
64
Area Applications Particular Priority or special adaptation for
considerations coexistence
for the cultural environment as well as
national interest claims for recreation.
B165 General use High nature values:
Shipping Deep soft bottom. reef
environment.
65
3.3. Southern Bothnian Sea
Electricity transmission
Electricity transmission consists of two transmission grid cables (FennoScan) that run from the
area at Forsmark in Sweden to Finland. (B150, B154)
Energy extraction
In the Southern Bothnian Sea there are several shallow areas and good wind conditions, which
means that there are good conditions for energy extraction in the area as a whole. In the
Southern Bothnian Sea there are five areas with the use energy extraction and where three
investigation areas for energy extraction.
The East Eystra Salt Bank (B160) is located in the exclusive economic zone and is part of a
larger area that extends into the marine area of the North Bothnian Sea and the Northern
Kvarken. The area is considered to be of public interest of substantial significance for wind
energy. In most of the area, bottom-fixed foundations are suitable due to depth, with the
exception of the southern part. The area is defined with particular consideration to the interests of
total defence. The area is considered to have a relatively low degree of conflict with nature,
recreation, cultural environment and fishing.
The open sea area Eystrasaltbanken (B159) is located in the exclusive economic zone outside
Nordanstig and Hudiksvall municipalities. The area is considered to be a public interest of
substantial significance for wind energy and is specified with particular consideration to the
interests of the total defence. Area B159 has been adapted to the west to take account of
commercial fishing. In the area, bottom-fixed foundations are suitable due to the depth. The area
is considered to have a relatively low degree of conflict with nature, recreation and cultural
environment.
The open sea area north Sylen (B164) is located in an exclusive economic zone and is
considered to be a public interest of substantial significance for wind energy. The south-eastern
part of the area is indicated as an energy extraction area in the previously adopted marine spatial
plan 2022 for the Gulf of Bothnia (Regeringen 2022a). Within the area there are also national
interest claims for shipping (see heading shipping). In most of the area, bottom-fixed foundations
are suitable due to depth. The area has been adapted to the west with regard to the accessibility
of shipping and recreational and cultural values on the coast. The area is defined with particular
consideration to the interests of total defence. The area is also specified with particular
consideration to high cultural heritage values, which primarily relate to the western parts towards
land. Cultural environments on the coast include the Agö-Kråkö Archipelago and Bålsö-
Kuggörarna with coastal and archipelago environments, fishing villages and ancient sites
(Länsstyrelserna, 2024). These areas are also covered by national interest claims for cultural
heritage conservation. There are also underwater environments along the coast that can be
directly affected and need to be taken into account in any establishment.
Gretas Klackar (B142) is a more coastal area outside Hudiksvall municipality. The area is listed
as an energy extraction area in the previously adopted marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia
in 2022 (Regeringen 2022a) and is covered by a national interest claim for wind energy. In the
66
area, bottom-fixed foundations are suitable due to the depth. The area is defined with particular
consideration to the interests of total defence. The area is also subject to particular consideration
to high cultural heritage values. Cultural environments on the coast include Agö-
Kråköarkipelagen, Bålsö-Kuggörarna and Skärså – Prästgrundet with coastal and archipelago
environments, fishing villages and archaeological sites (Länsstyrelsen 2024). These areas are
also covered by national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation. There are also
underwater environments along the coast that can be directly affected and need to be taken into
account in any establishment. The area is also listed with particular consideration to high nature
values, which includes mammal area, fish spawning area, bird area and reef environments.
At Storgrundet (B146) there is a licensed project for the establishment of wind energy and
national interest claims for wind energy. The area is listed as an energy extraction area in the
previously adopted marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia 2022 (Regeringen 2022a). In the
field of energy, there is also an investigation area for shipping, which requires further investigation
for coexistence (See the heading Investigation area for shipping). In the area, it is possible with
bottom-fixed foundations taking into account the depth. The area is designated with particular
consideration to the interests of total defence and particular consideration to high nature values
relating to mammal area, fish spawning area and reef environment. The area is also subject to
particular consideration to high cultural heritage values. Cultural environments on the coast
include fishing villages, fairway environments and sawmill communities (Länsstyrelserna 2024).
There are underwater environments along the coast that can be directly affected and need to be
taken into account in any establishment.
Within Västra Bank and Finngrundet (B157) there are several national interest claims. The
western, northern and eastern parts of Finngrunden are covered by national interest claims for
wind energy. There is an important shipping route through the area covered by national maritime
interest claims. At Finngrunden there is a spawning and nursery area for fish, which is a national
interest claim for commercial fishing. Natura 2000 sites have been established on banks to
protect valuable habitats. In the area Västra Bank and Finngrundet (B157), energy extraction is
not indicated as a use because it is not considered to be compatible with nature and shipping.
The investigation area for energy extraction at Västra Finngrundet in the previously decided
marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia (Regeringen 2022a) has been deleted. This is because
changing conditions mean that several other areas of energy extraction are deemed to be more
suitable from a holistic perspective.
At Campsgrund in the south, there are uses that are not deemed compatible (B150). Within the
marine spatial plan area, there are parts of national interest claims for wind energy in Tierps and
Älvkarleby municipalities and national interest claims for shipping and defence interests. Energy
extraction is not indicated as use.
Investigation areas for energy extraction
In the Southern Bothnian Sea, three areas are listed as the investigation area for energy
extraction (B149, B152, B156). The fact that they are designated as investigation areas is due to
the fact that there are considerable uncertainties regarding the potential cumulative effects of the
areas on bird migration routes in the event of an offshore wind energy expansion.
67
Norr Finngrundet (B149) is partly covered by national interest claims for wind energy. In other
parts, the area is considered to be of significant public interest for wind energy. Parts of the area
are listed as energy extraction areas in the previously adopted marine spatial plan for the Gulf of
Bothnia 2022 (Regeringen 2022a). Within the area there are national interest claims for shipping.
Energy extraction and shipping are not deemed to be compatible here and energy extraction is
indicated as the most suitable use (see heading Maritime). The area has been adapted to take
account of commercial fishing. In the area, bottom-fixed foundations are suitable taking into
account the depth. The area is designated with particular consideration to the interests of the total
defence and particular consideration to high nature values relating to the fish spawning area, reef
environment and bird area for resting and wintering seabirds.
Utknallen (B152) is a more coastal area outside Gävle. The area is covered by a national interest
claim for wind energy and is listed as an energy extraction area in the previously adopted marine
spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia 2022(Regeringen 2022a). The area is designated with
particular consideration to the interests of total defence and particular consideration to high
nature values relating to bird areas for resting and wintering seabirds. The area is also subject to
particular consideration to high cultural heritage values. Cultural environments on the coast
include fishing villages, fairway environments and industrial environments (Länsstyrelserna
2024). There are underwater environments along the coast that can be directly affected and need
to be taken into account in any establishment.
Syd Finngrunden (B156) is part of Älvkarleby, Tierp and Östhammar municipalities. Parts of the
area are in the exclusive economic zone. The area is considered to be of the public interest of
substantial significance for wind energy The area has been adapted to take account of
commercial fishing. The area is designated with particular consideration to the interests of total
defence and particular consideration to high nature values relating to bird areas for resting and
wintering seabirds. The area is also subject to particular consideration to high cultural heritage
values. Cultural environments on the coast include fishing villages, fairway environments and
industrial environments(Länsstyrelserna 2024). Underwater environments along the coast can be
directly affected and need to be taken into account in any establishment.
Recreation
In the coastal area there are shallow archipelagos with genuine fishing villages. Within the
municipalities of Hudiksvall and Östhammar, among others, there are national interest claims for
recreation in the vicinity of the marine spatial plan area. The possibility of coexistence with other
uses and consideration distances needs to be assessed from a local perspective. Any wind
energy installation will have a visual impact on the area.
Defence
Within Östhammar municipality, the use of defence is indicated due to an area of influence with a
special need for freedom from obstacles (B153).
When developing energy, particular consideration shall be given to the interests of total defence.
The many energy extraction areas in the Southern Bothnian Sea entail the risk of cumulative
effects on the interests of total defence. This risk shall be taken into account, which may limit the
extent of the development, collectively or in individual areas. Particular consideration to the
68
interests of total defence is therefore given for all energy areas in the Southern Bothnian Sea
(B142, B146, B149, B152, B156, B159 - B160, B164).
Cultural environment
The coast in the south, at Gräsö towards South Kvarken, is covered by a highly developed
coastline of national interest. Areas of national interest for cultural conservation are located along
the coast outside the boundary of the marine spatial plan area. One area at Öregrund and
Östhammar is a landscape conservation area. Along the coast there is also a historic sailing
route, Sankt Olav, which stretches from Åland to Trondheim.
Marine cultural heritage values have been identified by the county administrative boards and can
be found along the entire coast of Gävleborg and Uppsala counties. The predominant cultural
environments in the area are fishing villages, archaeological sites and communication
environments (Länsstyrelserna 2024). There are also elements of industry environments and
sawmill communities. Along the coast there is a large proportion of cultural environments below
the surface in sinking areas with concentrations of wrecks classified as ancient remains and
protected under the Cultural Environment Act (1988:950). These require consideration in the
event of impact on the seabed.
In the Southern Bothnian Sea, several energy areas are listed with particular consideration to
high cultural heritage values (B142, B146, B152, B156, B164).
Consideration distances to value areas, relevant national interest claims and World Heritage sites
need to be assessed from a local perspective, such as indirect impact on cultural heritage values
of energy extraction in coastal areas. This may mean that measures are taken to minimise direct,
indirect and cumulative effects on the cultural environment and may consist of specific
requirements for the location and design of wind farms or through specific requirements during
the construction phase of a wind farm.
Nature
The marine spatial plan includes areas with the use nature on Finngrunden's three banks (B157)
where there are Natura 2000 areas. At Finngrunden there are wintering areas for seabirds. The
banks are the northernmost outpost of wintering long-tailed duck, which is a threatened species in
Sweden. There is also a national interest claim for commercial fishing that relates to spawning
and nursery area for fish that extends over Finngrunden. In the area Västra Bank and
Finngrundet (B157), energy extraction is not deemed to be able to coexist with nature and
shipping, which are listed as uses (see heading Energy extraction).
On the coast of Nordanstig there is a national interest claim for nature conservation. Part of the
national interest overlaps with the seal protection area Lillgrund. A smaller part of the national
interest and the seal protection area extends into the marine spatial plan area (B150). The
national interest claim is met, but depending on the overall scale of the marine spatial plan, it is
not marked as use nature in the plan map.
The marine spatial plan gives particular consideration to high nature values on other offshore
banks in the marine area, such as Greta's heels (B142) and Storgrundet (B146) where there are
reef environments, fish spawning and mammal areas. Also, Östra Finngrunden (B149) where
69
high nature values consist of reef environment, fish spawning and bird area. In the areas
Utknallen (B152), Argos Grundkallegrund (B154) and Syd Finngrunden (B156) particular
consideration is given to high nature values because they lie within an important bird range. Birds
range also affects Östra Finngrunden (B149).
The areas for energy extraction around Finngrunden (B149, B152, B156) are listed as
investigation areas because there are considerable uncertainties about the potential cumulative
effects of the areas on bird migration routes in the event of an offshore wind energy expansion.
Shipping
Shipping is indicated for several shipping routes to and from Södra Kvarken (B150, B153, B154,
B157). Several important ports are located along the coast of the South Bothnian Sea. Maritime
traffic in the marine area is crucial for many industries with destinations both along their own
coast and in the rest of Sweden and Finland. Shipping needs large areas and alternative routes
because the winter ice is weather dependent and moves in an unpredictable way within the Gulf
of Bothnia. This shall be taken into account when establishing wind energy and other fixed
installations at sea. There is a lack of knowledge about how offshore wind energy affects ice
formation, conditions for icebreaking and winter navigation (Swedish Maritime Administration,
2022).
The plan map shows the most important shipping routes, not the shipping's total need for
surfaces. There must be a safety distance adjacent to the shipping lanes. Marine spatial plans do
not provide guidance on specific safety distances to shipping, but distances will be required for all
areas with the use energy extraction. The distance shall be adapted to local conditions according
to risk assessment (Swedish Maritime Administration, Swedish Transport Agency, 2023).
In the area Västra Bank and Finngrundet (B157), energy extraction is not deemed to be able to
coexist with nature and shipping, which are listed as uses (see heading Energy extraction).
A shipping route covered by a national interest claim for shipping passes through one of the
areas with the use energy extraction (B164) and one of the investigation areas for energy
extraction (B149). Energy extraction is indicated as use and shipping is adapted in accordance
with the assessment in the previously decided marine spatial plan for the Gulf of Bothnia 2022
(Regeringen 2022a). The assessment is that access to the ports of the southern Norrland coast
remains, although traffic may need to go more eastwards than before. The plan thus caters for
both wind energy and shipping interests.
Several wind farms in the same marine area may pose a risk of cumulative impacts on the
mobility and safety of shipping when the available space is limited. That risk shall be taken into
account.
Investigation area for shipping
The marine spatial plan specifies the maritime investigation area at the inlets to Ljusne and
Vallvik at Storgrundet (B146, B150). In order to achieve coexistence with the field of energy
production (B146), shipping needs to be investigated. Adaptation may then need to take place for
both shipping and energy extraction.
70
Commercial fishing
There is coastal fishing that characterizes many of the smaller coastal communities and is mostly
conducted with passive gear inside and outside the coastal band. At times, intensive pelagic
fishing takes place mainly around the offshore banks and in the south-eastern parts of the marine
area. The Southern Bothnian Sea has three areas of national interest for commercial fishing.
Finngrunden has a spawning and nursery area for fish. This area is partly covered by Natura
2000 and the entire area is listed as use nature in the marine spatial plan. West and east of
Finngrunden there are two fishing areas that represent a national interest for commercial fishing.
These are covered by the use of commercial fishing (B150). In the eastern area there is also a
public interest of substantial significance for wind energy. Energy extraction is not considered to
be able to coexist with commercial fishing here and is not indicated as use. In addition to Swedish
fishing, extensive Finnish fishing is also carried out in the area (Rantanen, Helminen, och Nature
Resources Institute Finland 2023).
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Plan map for the Southern Bothnian Sea marine area
Map 4 Plan map for the South Bothnian Sea marine area
72
Area table Southern Bothnian Sea
Table 3 Area table Southern Bothnian Sea
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special
adaptation for
coexistence
B142 Energy extraction The interests of total defence
High cultural heritage values: Village
or church environment. Fishing
village. Prehistoric environment.
Communication environment. Coastal
and archipelago environment.
production environment; Recreational
environment.
High nature values: Mammals. Fish
spawning. Reef environment; Birds.
B146 Energy extraction The interests of total defence The coexistence of
Investigation area for High cultural heritage values: Fishing shipping and energy
shipping village. Prehistoric environment. extraction may require
Communication environment. Coastal adaptations.
and archipelago environment.
Cultivation landscape. production Conditions for winter
environment; Recreational navigation need to be
environment. taken into account.
High nature values: Mammals. Fish
spawning. Reef environment;
B149 Investigation area for The interests of total defence Energy production takes
energy extraction High nature values: Fish spawning. priority over shipping. The
Birds. Reef environment; Particularly coexistence of shipping
low environmental impact. and energy extraction may
require adaptations.
Shipping is indicated as
use in the nearby area
instead (B150) because it
is not deemed to be able to
coexist with energy
extraction here.
Shipping adapted in
accordance with the
assessment in the
previously decided marine
spatial plan for the Gulf of
Bothnia (Government
2022). In the area there are
national interest claims for
wind energy and shipping.
Conditions for winter
navigation need to be
taken into account.
B150 Electricity transmission Energy extraction is not
General use indicated as use. The
Shipping coexistence of shipping
Investigation area for and energy extraction may
shipping require adaptations.
Commercial fishing
At west Eystrasaltbanken
the area with the use
energy extraction (B159)
has been adjusted with
regard to commercial
fishing. Public interest of
73
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special
adaptation for
coexistence
substantial significance for
commercial fishing and
wind farms overlaps.
At Camp's bank, energy
extraction is not indicated
as use because it is not
deemed to be able to
coexist with shipping and
the interests of the total
defence presently. In the
area there are national
interest claims for shipping
and wind energy.
At Sydost Finngrundet, the
marine spatial plan to give
priority to the use of
commercial fishing over
energy extraction, as the
uses are not deemed to be
able to coexist here.
National interest claims for
commercial fishing and
public interest of
substantial significance for
wind energy overlap.
At west of Utsjöområde
north Sylen the area with
the use energy extraction
(B164) has been adjusted
with regard to recreation
and cultural environment
values on the coast as well
as accessibility for
shipping. In the area there
is a public interest of
substantial significance for
wind energy. In the
immediate area there are
national interest claims for
shipping and in the coastal
and archipelago area there
are national interest claims
for outdoor life as well as
national interest claims and
public interest of
substantial significance for
cultural heritage
conservation.
Conditions for winter
navigation need to be
taken into account.
B152 Investigation area for The interests of total defence The coexistence of
energy extraction High cultural heritage values: Fishing shipping and energy
village. Prehistoric environment. extraction may require
Communication environment. Coastal adaptations.
and archipelago environment.
Cultivation landscape. production
environment; Recreational
74
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special
adaptation for
coexistence
environment. Conditions for winter
High nature values: Birds. navigation need to be
taken into account.
B153 Defence
Shipping
B154 Electricity transmission High nature values: Mammals. Fish
General use spawning. Birds. Reef environment.
Shipping
B156 Investigation area for The interests of total defence The coexistence of
energy extraction High cultural heritage values: Fishing shipping and energy
village. Communication environment. extraction may require
Coastal and archipelago environment. adaptations.
High nature values: Birds.
Conditions for winter
navigation need to be
taken into account.
B157 Nature Nature and shipping are
Shipping given priority over energy
extraction.
The marine spatial plan
gives priority to the uses of
nature and shipping over
energy production. The
uses are not expected to
co-exist here.
Natura 2000 and national
interest claims for shipping
and wind farms overlap.
B159 Energy extraction The interests of total defence The coexistence of
shipping and energy
extraction may require
adaptations.
Conditions for winter
navigation need to be
taken into account.
B160 Energy extraction The interests of total defence The coexistence of
shipping and energy
extraction may require
adaptations.
Conditions for winter
navigation need to be
taken into account
75
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special
adaptation for
coexistence
B164 Energy extraction The interests of total defence Energy production takes
High cultural heritage values: Village priority over shipping. The
or church environment. Fishing coexistence of shipping
village. Prehistoric environment. and energy extraction may
Communication environment. Coastal require adaptations.
and archipelago environment.
Shipping is indicated as
use in the nearby area
instead (B150) because it
is not deemed to be able to
coexist with energy
extraction here.
Shipping adapted in
accordance with the
assessment in the
previously decided Marine
spatial plan for the Gulf of
Bothnia (Government
2022). National interest
claims for shipping and
public interest of
substantial significance for
wind energy overlap.
Conditions for winter
navigation need to be
taken into account.
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4. Baltic Sea: Guidance and considerations
General information about the marine spatial plan area
Here is a summary of the main features of the planning for the marine spatial plan area. The
direction of use and considerations for the marine areas of the marine spatial plan area are also
reported.
The plan map shall be interpreted on the approximate scale between 1:700 000 and 1:1 000 000.
The boundaries and markings in the map are reflect the strategic level of the marine spatial plans.
The laying of data and telecommunications cables, power cables, pipelines and gas pipelines
shall be enabled where suitable. The operation and maintenance of data and telecommunications
cables, power cables, pipelines and gas pipelines shall always be possible. This applies to the
entire planning area.
There are five marine areas in the Baltic Sea:
• Northern Baltic and South Kvarken
• Central Baltic
• South-Eastern Baltic Sea
• Southern Baltic Sea
• South-West Baltic Sea and Øresund.
Renewable electricity production
The marine spatial plans will contribute to achieving the society's goal of 100 per cent fossil-free
electricity production by 2040. The conditions for wind energy in the Baltic Sea differ between
different marine areas. Common to all areas is that the technical possibilities for offshore wind
energy are good, in terms of wind speed and depth. Shipping is intensive throughout the Baltic
Sea. The military component of total defence takes up large areas, both on the basis of open and
non-open interests. Near land there are many valuable cultural environments and areas for
outdoor recreation. The southwestern, southern, south-eastern and central Baltic Seas have
great nature values, including birds, mammals and valuable bottom habitats.
The Swedish Armed Forces have indicated that the possibilities for coexistence are lower in the
Baltic Sea than in the other marine spatial plan areas (Energimyndigheten 2023). In order to
increase opportunities for coexistence, efforts are needed both from the Swedish Armed Forces
and other actors, both in terms of technological development but also in the process of planning
and licensing offshore wind energy(Odell et al. 2022). The starting point for the planning has been
updated data for new or changed areas for energy extraction in the marine spatial
plans(Energimyndigheten 2023). Based on the assessment made by the Government regarding
the impact of offshore wind energy on the Swedish Armed Forces’ ability to cope with the
changed security situation, no additional areas with the use energy extraction are currently
77
(Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet 2024; Regeringen 2024b) specified in the draft marine
spatial plan than those in the adopted plan (Regeringen 2022a).
The marine spatial plan provides guidance on three areas for energy extraction in the Baltic Sea,
two of which are reported in the plan map. In the third area, the interest of energy extraction is
accommodated, but this is not reported in the plan map due to scale. Of the three sites, two
activities are in place and the third one has a permit. The two active areas are coastal, and the
licensed area is located in the open sea.
When developing energy, particular consideration shall be given to the interests of total defence.
In all areas of energy production, particular consideration is therefore given to the interests of
total defence. Two out of three areas in the Baltic Sea give particular consideration to high
cultural heritage values. The values are based on places on land and ancient and cultural
remains on the seabed that can be affected by installations at sea. In one area, particular
consideration is also given to high nature values. This means that there is a special need for
future measures in management, planning and licensing to ensure ecosystem services linked to
the values, structures and conditions of the areas.
Competition between uses
There are high nature values in the marine spatial plan area, which affects the future
establishment of wind energy and sand extraction. The activities are assessed as possible, but in
several cases, there are requirements for assessment under Natura 2000 legislation.
Operational oil spills from shipping south of Gotland have a negative impact on the population of
algae. Sea traffic can also affect harbour porpoises through noise. One way to reduce the impact
may be to redirect traffic, but there may also be other solutions. Making changes to any part of
the transport system is complex and can have consequences in other parts of the transport
system. The impact of shipping on the nature environment and the measures that may be
suitable to reduce the negative impact of shipping need to be further investigated, and therefore
the marine spatial plan specifies an investigation area for shipping both south and north and east
of Gotland. Algae and harbour porpoises can also be negatively affected by wind energy.
Nature and people
The Baltic Sea's marine spatial plan area has high nature values and attractive habitats for
people. Coastal and archipelago landscapes are widely used for recreation and there are high
cultural values both in the coastal strip and in the sea.
There are large areas of high nature value in the marine spatial plan area and several of them are
nature reserves or Natura 2000 areas that use nature in the marine spatial plan. In addition to
these, there are areas where activities need to take particular consideration to high nature values.
While there are good conditions for various activities, the environment in the Baltic Sea needs to
be improved in order to achieve good environmental status. For example, there are large areas of
dead sea bottoms due to lack of oxygen. In the Baltic Sea there are marine mammals such as
harbour porpoises and seals, as well as spawning and nursery areas for several fish species. For
harbour porpoises, the population size is critically low in the Baltic Sea and the situation for fish is
strained and severe. There are important bird routes across the Baltic Sea. The offshore banks
78
are valuable with sea bottom habitats and are of great importance as wintering areas for
seabirds. In the case of breeding and wintering birds, some groups of these birds do not achieve
good environmental status.
Industry and shipping that ties together the region
The Baltic Sea is of great importance for international trade and is therefore also one of the most
intensively trafficked areas in the world. The many shipping routes link the countries together and
contribute to the goal of linking the Baltic Sea region through the transport of people and goods.
With this starting point, shipping routes extending from Sweden's neighbouring countries into the
Swedish exclusive economic zone have been identified as public interests of substantial
significance and listed as maritime use.
In the marine spatial plan area there are areas that may be possible for extraction of sand and
there are good technical conditions for offshore energy extraction. Commercial fishing takes place
on very large areas and fishing areas also change between different years and over a longer
period of time. Therefore, the area for the use of commercial fishing is widespread in the marine
spatial plan. The development of the stock situation is crucial for fishing opportunities. The
situation is difficult for, among other things, the cod stock in the Baltic Sea.
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Plan map Marine spatial plan area Baltic Sea
Map 5 Plan map for the Baltic Sea
80
4.1. Northern Baltic and South Kvarken
Energy extraction
The northern Baltic Sea has good wind conditions for offshore wind energy, while electricity
demand is high due to consumption in the Mälardalen region. In the area there are five national
interest claims for wind energy. During the marine spatial process, five areas deemed to be public
interests of substantial significance for wind energy. The marine spatial plan does not specify any
areas with the use energy extraction in the Northern Baltic Sea and the South Kvarken.
One national interest claim is outside the Swedish Highlands, (Ö203, Ö214) and one outside
Nämdö (Ö507). In several areas along the coast from Norrtälje to Oxelösund there are national
interest claims for wind energy (Ö208, Ö210 – Ö211, Ö504). The Marine spatial plan does not
provide guidance on energy extraction in any of these areas because it is deemed not to be
compatible with defence interests. Within the naval training area Nåttarö (Ö504) and
Landsortsdjupet (Ö210) there is an open national interest claim for the total defence. The marine
spatial plan does not provide guidance on energy extraction in these areas. National interest
claims for energy extraction in the marine area are not considered to be compatible with the
interests of total defence and are not indicated as use.
In the sea area east of Stockholm (Ö204), there are four public interests of substantial
significance for wind energy. Sydost Svenska Högarna is an area suitable for bottom-fixed
foundations. Northeast Gotska Sandön and east Nynäshamn and east of Almagrundet it is
suitable with floating foundations due to depth. The Government has rejected the projects that
overlapped with the public interests of substantial significance for wind energy due to conflict with
the interests of total defence (Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet 2024). The marine spatial
plan does not guide any of these areas as the use energy extraction, as energy extraction is not
considered to be compatible with the interests of total defence in the Baltic Proper at present
(Regeringen 2024b)
There is a public interest of substantial significance for for wind energy at Gustaf Dalén and
southeast of Gustaf Dalén (Ö208, Ö211). The marine spatial plan does not guide energy
extraction in the area because it is not considered to be compatible with defence interests
and nature conservation. The area is close to the coast and is of great importance for
breeding, wintering and resting seabirds that are considered to be of general interest of
substantial significance for nature conservation.
Based on the Government’s decision to reject all applications for offshore wind farms in the
marine area, the overall assessment is that there are currently no conditions for the use energy
extraction apart from existing permits in the Baltic Proper due to the interests of total defence
(Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet 2024; Regeringen 2024b).
Recreation
The marine spatial plan specifies the use recreation outside parts of the Östergötland archipelago
(Ö208, Ö211). The guidance on the use recreation is based on national interest claims for
recreation.
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In the Stockholm archipelago there are high cultural, outdoor and nature values. Across the South
Kvarken, it forms, together with the Åland archipelago and the west coast of Finland, a unique
stretch of shallow archipelagos. The Stockholm archipelago is one of Sweden's most visited with
many nature harbours and marinas. Outdoor life and recreational shipping are extensive.
Recreational boat traffic often travels both to and from the Gulf of Bothnia in the north, the
archipelagos of Gryts and Sankt Anna in the south, to Gotland and across the Åland Sea.
At the entire coastline from Östhammar and south in the marine area and around Gotland, there
are national interest claims for outdoor life outside the marine spatial plane area and national
interest outdoor recreationt hat goes into the marine spatial plane area. The possibility of
coexistence with other uses and consideration distances needs to be assessed from a local
perspective.
Defence
The marine spatial plan specifies the use of defence along large parts of the coastline in the
marine area due to national interest claims for total defence and areas of influence. Väddö
shooting range is located in Norrtälje municipality at South Kvarken, with associated impact area
out over the sea (Ö201). The marine spatial plan also specifies the use of defence for impact
areas at Söderarm and Korsö firing ranges in the municipalities of Norrtälje and Värmdö (Ö202,
Ö206 to Ö207). In Stockholm's southern archipelago, the Utö shooting range and sea training
area Nåttarö extends from the coast through the territorial sea into the Swedish exclusive
economic zone outside the municipalities of Värmdö, Haninge and Nynäshamn (Ö210, Ö504-
Ö505).
In the event of an energy expansion, particular consideration shall be given to the interests of the
total defence. The Government has rejected 13 projects in the Baltic Proper due to conflict with
the interests of total defence(Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet 2024).
Cultural environment
The entire stretch of coastline in the marine area is covered by highly developed coastline of
national interest. Areas of national interest for cultural conservation are located along the coast
towards land, outside the marine spatial plan area.
Marine cultural heritage values have been identified by the County Administrative Board and can
be found along the coast and in the archipelago area outside the counties of Stockholm and
Södermanland. These include communication environments and coastal and archipelago
environments, but there are also lighthouse environments such as Söderarm, Svenska Högarna
and Hävringe (Länsstyrelserna 2024). There are also wrecks and ancient and cultural-historical
remains on the seabed in the immediate area, which requires consideration in the event of any
impact on the seabed. The need for consideration distances to the value areas, relevant national
interest claims and World Heritage Sites needs to be assessed from a local perspective.
Nature
The marine spatial plan indicates the use of nature in three areas around the Stockholm
archipelago, where there are national interest claims for nature conservation (Ö203, Ö206,
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Ö210). The area at Norrtälje municipality also includes a planned marine nature reserve (Ö203).
Just outside the marine spatial plan area (Ö504), a marine national park is planned in the
archipelago.
The marine spatial plan gives particular consideration to high nature values in several areas. The
Åland Sea (Ö200-Ö201) is a foraging area for birds. It is also a migratory route for birds of prey.
(Hansson 2019) In the Åland Sea there are also unique oxygenated deep areas, migratory
salmon and viable cod stocks. North and southeast of the Swedish Highlands there are four
areas with potential climate refugia for blue mussels. These are four of the eight identified areas
in the Baltic Sea (Havs- och vattenmyndigheten 2017c). Climate refuge is safeguarded through
particular consideration to high nature values (Ö200, Ö202, Ö207, Ö214). In the area Öst
Svenska Högarna (Ö214) there are also high nature values in the form of mammal and bird area
and reef environments. Along the southwest of the marine area, particular consideration is given
to high nature values as there is a reef environment and a spawning and mammal area (Ö211).
There are high nature values in the form of reef environments west of Stockholm's southern
archipelago (Ö207, Ö507). North of the Copper Stones there is a bird area (Ö505).
Some national interest claims for nature conservation that are mainly located in the coastal zone
extend into the marine spatial plan area. Due to the overall scale of the marine spatial plan, they
are not marked as use nature in the marine spatial plan. This applies, among other things, at
Simpnäsklubb (Ö200-Ö202) and west of Hävringe in Nyköping municipality (Ö211).
Shipping
The marine spatial plan specifies the use of shipping in routes both in the lake and towards ports
on the coast (Ö200-Ö204, Ö206-Ö208, Ö210-Ö211, Ö214, Ö504-Ö505). The shipping routes are
also part of the Baltic Sea's larger traffic system with connections to the Gulf of Finland, Åland
and the Baltic States. In order to connect shipping routes from Stockholm to Latvia, the use
shipping to the east of the easternmost (deepest) fairway in the Swedish exclusive economic
zone (Ö204) is included. The narrow water area of South Kvarken is the passage between the
North Baltic Sea and the Bothnian Sea. In order to make the waters safe, there is a system of
traffic separation that is located both in Sweden and in Finland. The passages to Lake Mälaren
via the Södertälje Canal into Stockholm, the road into the Port of Oxelösund and the Port of
Stockholm Norvik are other important routes for maritime use in the marine area. The plan map
shows the most important shipping routes, not the shipping's total need for surfaces. There must
be a safety distance adjacent to the shipping lanes. Marine spatial plans do not provide guidance
on specific safety distances to shipping, but distances will be required for all areas with the use
energy extraction. Distance adapted to local conditions following risk assessment (Sjöfartsverket
och Transportstyrelsen 2023)
Investigation area for shipping
Horsstensleden is a possible future fairway through the Stockholm archipelago into the port of
Stockholm. The intended route is not located in the marine spatial plan area, but connects
through two national interest claims for shipping to the traffic system in the marine spatial plan
area (Ö206-Ö207 and Ö203-Ö204, Ö206). Horsstensleden is not included in the National
Transport Infrastructure Planning 2022-2033 (Regeringen 2021). It is outside the legal mandate
of the national marine spatial planning to consider whether the intended fairway outside the
83
marine spatial plan area is suitable. However, the marine spatial plan should take height for it
because in the future it may be suitable to have a new fairway towards Stockholm. For this
reason, the connections are marked as an investigation area for shipping.
From Nynäshamn there is a route towards Gdansk in Poland. This route corresponds to an
investigation area for shipping (Ö208, Ö210, Ö504). Also, around Gotland, in the marine areas of
the Central Baltic Sea and the South-Eastern Baltic Sea, the marine spatial plan indicates an
investigation area for shipping. See more under the heading ‘Investigation area for shipping” in
the section on the Central Baltic Sea and the South-Eastern Baltic Sea t marine areas.
Commercial fishing
In the entire Northern Baltic Sea from Värmdö municipality and south, as well as in a smaller area
in the South Kvarken, pelagic fishing is conducted, which concerns fishing for herring and sprat in
the open sea. The use commercial fishing is indicated in the southern part of the marine area
(Ö208, Ö211, Ö504).
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Plan map marine area Northern Baltic Sea and South Kvarken
Map 6 Plan map for the North Baltic Sea and South Kvarken marine area
85
Area table Northern Baltic Sea and South Kvarken
Table 4 Area table Northern Baltic Sea and South Kvarken
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or
special
adaptation for
coexistence
Ö200 General use High nature values: Mammals.
Shipping Birds. High originality. Climate
refuge for blue mussels. Reef
environment.
Ö201 Defence High nature values: Birds.
Shipping
Ö202 Defence High nature values: Mammals.
Shipping Birds. High originality. Climate
refuge for blue mussels. Reef
environment,
Ö203 Nature Energy extraction is
Shipping not indicated as use.
Investigation area for
shipping Energy extraction is
not indicated as use
because it is not
considered to be able
to coexist with the
interests of total
defence at present.
In the area there is a
national interest claim
for wind energy.
Ö204 General use Energy extraction is
Shipping not indicated as use.
Investigation area for
shipping Energy extraction is
not indicated as use
because it is not
considered to be able
to coexist with the
interests of total
defence at present.
In the area there are
several public
interests of
substantial
significance for wind
energy.
Ö206 Defence
Nature
Shipping
Investigation area for
shipping
Ö207 Defence High nature values: Mammals. High
Shipping originality. Climate refuge for blue
Investigation area for mussels. Reef environment;
shipping
86
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or
special
adaptation for
coexistence
Ö208 Recreation Energy extraction is
General use not indicated as use.
Shipping
Investigation area for Energy extraction is
shipping not indicated as use
Commercial fishing because it is not
considered to be able
to coexist with the
interests of total
defence at present.
In the area there are
national interest
claims and public
interest of substantial
significance for wind
energy.
Ö210 Defence Defence takes priority
Nature over energy
Shipping extraction.
Investigation area for
shipping The marine spatial
plan gives guidance
on the priority for use
defence over energy
extraction, as the
uses are not deemed
to be able to coexist
here.
In the area there are
national interest
claims for total
defence and wind
energy.
Ö211 Recreation High nature values: Mammals. Energy extraction is
General use Birds. Reef environment. not indicated as use.
Shipping
Commercial fishing Energy extraction is
not indicated as use
because it is not
considered to be able
to coexist with nature
and the interests of
total defence at
present.
In the area there are
national interest
claims for wind
energy as well as
public interest of
substantial
significance for wind
energy and nature.
Ö214 General use High nature values: Mammals. Energy extraction is
Shipping Birds. Climate refuge for blue not indicated as use.
mussels. Reef environment.
Energy extraction is
not indicated as use
because it is not
87
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or
special
adaptation for
coexistence
considered to be able
to coexist with the
interests of total
defence at present.
There is a national
interest in wind
energy in the area.
Ö504 Defence Defence takes priority
Shipping over energy
Investigation area for extraction.
shipping
Commercial fishing The marine spatial
plan gives guidance
on the priority for use
defence over energy
extraction, as the
uses are not deemed
to be able to coexist
here.
In the area there are
national interest
claims for wind
energy and total
defence.
O505 Defence High nature values: Birds.
Shipping
Ö507 General use High nature values: Reef Energy extraction is
environment. not indicated as use.
Energy extraction is
not indicated as use
because it is not
considered to be able
to coexist with the
interests of total
defence at present.
There are national
interest claims for
wind energy in the
area.
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4.2. Central Baltic Sea
Energy extraction
The Central Baltic has good wind conditions for offshore wind energy. In the area there is a part
of a national interest claim for wind energy. During the marine spatial planning process, seven
areas deemed to be public interests of substantial significance for wind energy have been
identified. The marine spatial plan does not specify any areas that use energy extraction in the
Central Baltic Sea.
In Östergötland's archipelago there is part of a national interest claim for wind energy (Ö220),
however energy extraction is not deemed to be able to co-exist with the interests of total defence
in the Baltic Proper at present (Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet 2024; Regeringen 2024b).
In the area northwest of Gotland (Ö226) there are two public interests of substantial significance
for wind energy Both areas are suitable for floating foundations. The coastal area northwest of
Gotland is considered to have a relatively low degree of conflict with recreation, cultural
environment and nature. In southern Nielsengrund, measurement activities are carried out within
the national pelagic environmental monitoring. The area can also have a visual impact on nearby
cultural environments in case of offshore wind installations. No areas with the use energy
extraction are included, as wind energy installations is not considered to be compatible with the
interests of total defence in the Baltic Proper at present (Regeringen 2024b). A project which did
not overlap with a national interest claim or a public interest of substantial significance for wind
energy in the area has been rejected (Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet 2024; Regeringen
2024b).
Northeast of Gotska Sandön there is a public interest of substantial significance for wind energy
(Ö270). The area is located within an area of national interest for outdoor recreation and in the
vicinity of an area with a national interest claim for recreation In order to preserve the area's
values of undisturbedness and untouchedness, the marine spatial plan does include an area with
the use energy extraction. Also, the marine spatial plan does not include any area with the use
energy extraction, except already permitted areas, as energy extraction is not considered to be
compatible with the interests of total defence in the Baltic Proper at present (Klimat- och
näringslivsdepartementet 2024; Regeringen 2024b).
In the Eastern Baltic – Stockholm to East Gotland (Ö270) there are four additional public interests
of substantial significance for wind energy. Two of these, Klint's bank and southeast Fårösund
are suitable for bottom-fixed foundations. The two areas South Klint Bank and Northeast Sea
Training area Sankt Olof are suitable for floating foundations. Three of the areas overlap with
national interest claims for commercial fishing. Since commercial fishing on the site is mainly
pelagic, it is not considered that energy extraction can coexist with commercial fishing. Three of
the areas are coastal and may have a potential impact on cultural heritage values. One of the
areas overlaps Klints Bank, a climate refuge for blue mussels (Ö233). As energy extraction is not
considered to be compatible with the interests of total defence in the Baltic Proper at present
(Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet 2024; Regeringen 2024b, he marine spatial plan for the
Baltoc Sea does not include any area with the use energy extraction, except already permitted
areas,
89
Considering the Government’s decision to reject all applications for offshore wind farms in the
Baltic Sea proper including this marine area, the overall assessment is that there are currently no
preconditions for including areas with use using energy extraction in addition to existing permits in
the Baltic Proper due to the interests of total defence (Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet 2024;
Regeringen 2024b).
Recreation
The marine spatial plan specifies the use of recreation outside parts of the Östergötland
archipelago (Ö220-Ö222). The guidance on the use recreation is based on national interest
claims for recreation. Outdoor life and recreational boating are extensive, and valuable areas can
be found along the entire coast at Gryt's and Sankt Anna's archipelagos to Northern Öland and
around Gotland.
The coast from Västervik municipality and south as well as the coast around Gotland, outside the
marine spatial plane area, is covered by national interest outdoor recreation. The possibility of
coexistence with other uses and consideration distances needs to be assessed from a local
perspective wind energy. The area is within the area of national interest outdoor recreation and
close to the area with national interest claims for recreation. Gotska Sandön is unique in Sweden
with its isolated, solitary location that offers views of the unbroken horizon and without noise and
light disturbances. In order to preserve the area's values of undisturbedness and untouchedness,
and because of defence interests in the Baltic Proper, energy extraction is excluded from area
Ö270.
Defence
There are several areas in the Central Baltic designated with the use defence. Along the
mainland coast are the marine military training areas Sandsänkan (Ö221) and Urban, which
extend through the territorial sea into the Swedish exclusive economic zone outside the
municipalities of Valdemarsvik, Västervik and Oskarshamn (Ö222–Ö224). South of Visby out into
the territorial sea, defence is indicated as the area is an impact area for Tofta firing range (Ö228).
A little further north is the marine military training area Fårö (Ö230). Sankt Olof (Ö239) is located
east of Gotland and Fårö. The marine spatial plan gives particular consideration to the total
defence interests of parts of the west coast of Gotland due to the stop area for high objects for
Visby Airport (Ö229, Ö278, Ö289).
In the event of any offshore wind installation, particular consideration shall be given to the
interests of the total defence.
Cultural environment
Areas of national interest for cultural conservation are located along the coasts on the mainland
and on Gotland outside the boundaries of the marine spatial plan area and on Gotska Sandön.
Outside the marine spatial plan area there is national interest for unbroken coastline that covers
both the east and west sides of Öland and runs along the coast from Västervik to Arkösund in the
north. Coasts around Gotland outside the marine spatial plan area are of national interest for
90
high-exploited coasts. The Hanseatic city of Visby is located outside the boundary of the marine
spatial plane area.
Marine cultural heritage values have been identified by the county administrative board and are
found around large parts of the coast and marine area of Gotland, at the coastal areas of
Östergötland and Kalmar counties and Öland's northern cape and surrounding marine area
(Länsstyrelserna 2024). The cultural environments are mainly archaeological sites,
communication environments and coastal and archipelago environments. There are wrecks and
ancient and cultural-historical remains on the seabed, which requires consideration in the event of
impact on the seabed. The need for consideration distances to the value areas, relevant national
interest claims and World Heritage Sites needs to be assessed from a local perspective.
Nature
The marine spatial plan indicates the use nature in several areas, mainly along the mainland
coast and north of Gotland. Areas along the coasts of Östergötland and Kalmar counties are
covered by national interest claims for nature conservation (Ö220, Ö222, Ö224–Ö225, Ö234).
The area at Gotska Sandön and Salvorev is covered by Natura 2000 and several other nature
protections such as nature reserves and HELCOM MPA (Marine Protected Area) (Ö231). There
are national interest claims for nature conservation that are mainly located in the adjacent coastal
zone, but that extends just into the marine spatial plan area, including in Västervik municipality
(Ö223). National interest claims are accommodated, but due to the overall scale of the marine
spatial plan, they are not marked as use nature in the marine spatial plan.
At the marine military training area Sandsänkan in the Östergötland archipelago (Ö221) there are
national interest claims for total defence and in the western part of the area there is a small part
of national interest claims for nature conservation. The area where national interests overlap is
small in scale compared to the geographical scale of the plan map and is therefore not marked in
the plan map using the UN. Defence activities should be conducted in such a way as to avoid
negative impacts on the nature values that form the basis of national interest claims for nature
conservation.
Several areas in the Central Baltic Sea are listed with particular consideration to high nature
values. The areas of Southern Gotland (Ö500), Eastern Gotland (Ö296) and Copper Stones
(Ö506) are given particular consideration to high nature values due to birds. Klint's bank (Ö233)
is a potential climate refuge for blue mussels and has high nature values due to the fish play area
and bird area. Also west of Gotland, around Stora Karlsö (Ö289, Ö291), the marine spatial plan
indicates particular consideration to high nature values as the area is important for birds such as
common guillemots and razor bill. A migratory bird path runs through the area and constitutes the
main migration route for a large number of species native to the northern parts of western Russia
and north-eastern Scandinavia.
Shipping
The marine spatial plan specifies the use shipping on several shipping routes within the Central
Baltic Sea (Ö220-Ö226, Ö228-Ö229, Ö231, Ö233-Ö235, Ö239, Ö270, Ö278, Ö289, Ö291,
Ö506). Several important ports are located along the coast. Maritime traffic is important with
traffic both to the mainland coast, to Gotland and further north or south, as well as to Swedish
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and foreign ports around the Baltic Sea. A shipping route that extends from the Gulf of Riga and
connects to the deep waterway east of Gotland in the Swedish exclusive economic zone is a
public interest of substantial significance. The route is marked as maritime use (Ö270).
The plan map shows the most important shipping routes, not the shipping's total need for
surfaces. There must be a safety distance adjacent to the shipping lanes. Marine spatial plans do
not provide guidance on specific safety distances to shipping, but distances will be required for all
areas with the use energy extraction. The distance is adapted to local conditions following risk
assessment(Sjöfartsverket och Transportstyrelsen 2023).
Investigation area for shipping
There are two passages for sea traffic crossing Salvorev, between Fårö and Gotska sandön,
(Ö226, Ö229-Ö231, Ö233, Ö239, Ö270). The area has very high nature values: Among other
things, there is the red-listed species long tailed duck here. An investigation by the Swedish
Agency for Marine and Water Management (2017b) shows that seabirds are adversely affected
by operational oil spills from ships. The need to investigate the impact of shipping in the area
around Salvorev and what measures may be suitable to reduce the negative impact of shipping is
closely linked to the need for investigation in the more heavily trafficked area around Hoburgs
bank south of Gotland. In addition to the long-tailed duck, the impact of shipping on harbour
porpoises also needs to be investigated. The harbour porpoise is a strictly protected species
under the Habitats Directive and is adversely affected by noise from maritime traffic. The Baltic
Sea harbour porpoise population is classified as endangered. The overall effect of this needs to
be further investigated and for the ship routes across Salvorev the plan therefore indicates the
use investigation area for shipping. Also, a shipping route east of Gotland and the fairway into
Slite (Ö270, Ö296), as well as two routes from Nynäshamn towards the Gulf of Riga and Poland
(Ö226, Ö291), are part of the maritime investigation area that may affect shipping in the Central
Baltic Sea. Read more about this in the section on shipping in the South-Eastern Baltic Sea.
Commercial fishing
The plan indicates the use commercial fishing adjacent to the maritime boundary towards the
coast (Ö221, Ö223, Ö226, Ö235) and east of Gotland (Ö231, Ö233, Ö239, Ö270, Ö296). The
use corresponds to national interest claims for commercial fishing. Commercial fishing is
widespread in the Central Baltic Sea. Most fishing in the Central Baltic Sea is pelagic fishing
involving herring and sprat, and is carried out throughout the lake. Some fishing with passive gear
takes place towards the coast.
National interest claims for commercial fishing overlap with public interest of substantial
significance for wind energy in two areas of energy (Ö233, Ö271). Pelagic fishing and wind farms
are not considered to be able to coexist in the same place.
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Plan map marine area Central Baltic Sea
Map 7 Plan man for the Central Baltic Sea marine area
93
Area table Central Baltic Sea
Table 5 Area table Central Baltic Sea
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special
adaptation for
coexistence
Ö220 Recreation Energy extraction is not
Nature indicated as use.
Shipping
Energy extraction is not
indicated as use because it is
not considered to be able to
coexist with the interests of
total defence at present.
In the area there are national
interest claims for wind energy.
Ö221 Recreation
Defence
Shipping
Commercial fishing
Ö222 Recreation
Defence
Nature
Shipping
Ö223 Defence
Shipping
Commercial fishing
Ö224 Defence
Nature
Shipping
Ö225 Nature
Shipping
Ö226 General use Energy extraction is not
Shipping indicated as use.
Investigation area for
shipping Energy extraction is not
Commercial fishing indicated as use because it is
not considered to be able to
coexist with the interests of
total defence at present.
In the area there are two public
interests of substantial
significance for wind energy.
Ö228 Defence
Shipping
Ö229 General use The interests of total defence
Shipping
Investigation area for
shipping
Ö230 Defence
Investigation area for
shipping
Ö231 Nature
Shipping
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Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special
adaptation for
coexistence
Investigation area for
shipping
Commercial fishing
Ö233 General use High nature values: Fish spawning. Energy extraction is not
Shipping Birds. Climate refuge for blue indicated as use.
Investigation area for mussels.
shipping Energy extraction is not
Commercial fishing indicated as use because it is
not considered to be able to
coexist with the interests of
total defence at present.
In the area there is a public
interest of substantial
significance for wind energy.
Ö234 Defence
Nature
Shipping
Ö235 General use
Shipping
Commercial fishing
Ö239 Defence Defence takes priority over
Shipping energy extraction.
Investigation area for
shipping The marine spatial plan gives
Commercial fishing guidance on the priority for use
defence over energy
extraction, as the uses are not
deemed to be able to coexist
here.
In the area there are national
interest claims for total defence
as well as a public interest of
substantial significance for
wind energy.
Ö270 General use Energy extraction is not
Shipping indicated as use.
Investigation area for
shipping At Nordost Gotska Sandön,
Commercial fishing energy extraction is not
indicated as use because it is
not deemed to be able to
coexist with outdoor life.
In the area there is a national
interest for outdoor recreation
and several public interests of
substantial significance for
wind energy.
Energy extraction is not
indicated as use because it is
not considered to be able to
coexist with the interests of
total defence at present.
Ö278 General use The interests of total defence
Shipping
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Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special
adaptation for
coexistence
Ö289 General use The interests of total defence
Shipping High nature values: Birds.
Ö291 General use High nature values: Birds.
Shipping
Investigation area for
shipping
Ö296 General use High nature values: Birds. Energy extraction is not
Investigation area for indicated as use.
shipping
Commercial fishing Energy extraction is not
indicated as use because it is
not considered to be able to
coexist with the interests of
total defence at present.
In the area there is public
interest of substantial
significance for wind energy.
Ö506 General use High nature values: Birds.
Shipping
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4.3. South-Eastern Baltic Sea
Electricity transmission
The use electricity transmission is corresponding on the transmission cable NordBalt that passes
through the marine area (Ö248, Ö254, Ö258, Ö263). It connects to Nybro in Sweden and to
Klaipeda in Lithuania.
Energy extraction
The South-Eastern Baltic Sea has good wind conditions for offshore wind energy and there is a
great need and demand for electricity. The many offshore banks have both good wind conditions
and suitable depths for offshore wind turbines. At the same time, there are very high nature
values. In the area there are four national interest claims for wind energy. During the Marine
spatial planning process, seven areas deemed to be of significant public interest for wind energy
have been identified. The marine spatial plan does not specify any areas of energy use in the
South-Eastern Baltic Sea.
The outermost eastern and western parts of Norra Midsjöbanken and part of Södra Midsjöbanken
are covered by national interest claims for wind energy. There are also public interests of
substantial significance for wind energy in two areas at Norra Midsjöbanken. Both banks, in
addition to a part of Södra Midsjöbanken, are covered by a Natura 2000 area and site protection
under HELCOM (MPA). The marine spatial plan does not provide guidance on energy extraction
in the areas of Hoburgs bank and Midsjöbankarna (Ö248, Ö254). The overall nature interest has
been given priority over the public interest of substantial significance for wind energy, mainly with
reference to the high risk of impact on harbour porpoises. In the area, the county administrative
board has rejected a Natura 2000 application, but the decision has not yet become final, as it has
been appealed. The Government has rejected the permit application adjacent to Södra
Midsjöbanken due to conflict with the interests of the total defence (Klimat- och
näringslivsdepartementet 2024). The marine spatial plan does not include areas with the use of
energy extraction, as energy extraction presently is not considered to be compatible with the
interests of total defence (Regeringen 2024b).
At Kårehamn (Ö240, Ö503) there are national interest claims for both wind energy and total
defence. In some parts of the area there is an existing wind farm. The installation is limited in
extent and due to the overall scale of the marine spatial plan, energy extraction is not indicated
on the plan map, but the interest is accommodated. National interest claims for wind energy also
exist outside the current wind farm. Conditions for a future generational change in the area need
to be assessed in a permit process. In an overall assessment based on a basis from the
Government Offices, the Government states that no energy areas are deemed to be able to
coexist with the interests of total defence in the Baltic Sea(Regeringen 2024b).
In the marine area southeast of Gotland (Ö263) there are two public interests of substantial
significance for wind energy. In the area south-east of the Hoburg bank, the depth is suitable only
for floating wind turbines. The East Hoburg Bank area is suitable for bottom-fixed foundations.
The area overlaps with national interest claims for commercial fishing. Offshore wind energy and
pelagic fishing are deemed no to be able to coexist.
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The marine spatial plan does not include areas with the use of energy extraction, as energy
extraction presently is not considered to be compatible with the interests of total defence
(Regeringen 2024b).
In the areas southwest Gotland and south Gotland (Ö274, Ö500) there is a public interest of
substantial significance for wind energy. The area is an important migratory route for birds
between Öland and Gotland and further east. The area is also close to the coast and can affect
cultural environments on land and under water. The marine spatial plan does not provide
guidance on energy extraction in the ar ea. In the area south-west of Hoburg, one project has
been rejected by the government (Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet 2024). The marine
spatial plan does not include any of areas with the use of energy extraction, as energy extraction
presently is not considered to be compatible with the interests of total defence (Regeringen
2024b).
Based on the Government’s decision to reject all applications for offshore wind farms in the
marine area, the overall assessment is that there are currently no conditions for using energy
extraction in addition to existing permits in the Baltic Proper due to the interests of total defence
(Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet 2024; Regeringen 2024b).
Recreation
Recreation including pleasure boating is extensive in parts of the South-Eastern Baltic Sea. There
are several areas that are covered by national interest claims for recreation outside the marine
spatial plan area in the coastal areas around Gotland and Öland. The coast around Gotland is of
national interest for outdoor recreation. The possibility of coexistence with other uses and
consideration distances needs to be assessed from a local perspective.
Defence
Use defence is specified for the marine military training area Hanö and Martin located outside
Öland (Ö234, Ö240, Ö250, Ö252, Ö502-Ö503). The Martin training area extends from the coast
through the territorial sea into the Swedish exclusive economic zone outside Borgholm and
Mörbylånga municipalities. The northernmost part of the Hanö maritime training area lies within
the territorial sea south of Öland. In the event of an energy expansion, particular consideration
shall be given to the interests of the total defence.
Cultural environment
Along the coast of Öland there is a national interest for unbroken coast and at the coast of
Gotland there is national interest for highly exploited coast. Southern Öland's agricultural
landscape has been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO due to its cultural history and
geology. Southern Öland is also covered to a large extent by landscape appearance protection.
There are several areas that are covered by national interest claims for cultural conservation
outside the boundaries of the marine spatial plan area in the coastal areas around Gotland and
Öland.
Marine cultural heritage values have been identified by the county administrative board. Within
the Southeast Baltic Sea are the value areas Hoburgsrev-Heligholmen-Faludden in the southern
98
part of Gotland including parts of the marine area, Källa-Persnäs coastal areas on northern Öland
including parts of the marine area and Two outposts (Utklippan and Öland southern cape) along
the coast and the marine area on Öland's eastern coast down towards Utklippan lighthouse in the
south. The value areas Öland's northern cape and Fröjel-Eksta-Karlsöarna also extend into the
marine area (Länsstyrelserna 2024). The predominant cultural environments are coastal and
archipelago environments, agricultural landscapes, archaeological sites and communication
environments. There are also wrecks and ancient and cultural-historical remains on the seabed in
large parts of the marine area, which requires consideration in the event of any impact on the
seabed.
The need for consideration distances to the value areas, relevant national interest claims and
World Heritage Sites needs to be assessed from a local perspective.
Nature
The marine spatial plan describes the use of nature in a large area that extends from the
southern tip of Gotland at Hoburgen via Hoburgs bank to Norra Midsjöbanken and Södra
Midsjöbanken (Ö254) and a smaller adjacent area (Ö250). They are covered by Natura 2000
sites and have very valuable nature. In large parts, the environmental impact is low and the
marine environment can be considered relatively original (Havs- och vattenmyndigheten 2018b).
The nature values consist valuable sea bottom habitats, reproduction area of the endangered
Baltic harbour porpoise and the most important wintering areas for the long-tailed duck. Both
species are red-listed according to the Swedish Species Information Center’s assessment. In
addition, the harbour porpoise is subject to strict species protection under the Habitats Directive.
For the Baltic Sea population, only about 500 individuals remain, which is why it is seen as
critically endangered. There are also feeding areas for alder and other birds, as well as a
spawning area for fish in the area. The banks in the marine are indicated as potential climate
refugia for several species, which indicates that the ecological importance of the area may be
very high in the future (Havs- och vattenmyndigheten 2017b). Kalmar County Administrative
Board has proposed that the Natura 2000 site be expanded to include Ö248.
The marine spatial plan indicates the use of nature at the southern tip of Öland (Ö252–Ö253)
where there is a marine nature reserve.
The marine spatial plan gives particular consideration to high nature values in several areas
along the coasts and in connection with areas with nature protection where there are also
important nature values (Ö240, Ö248, Ö258, Ö500-Ö502). A migratory bird path runs through the
area and constitutes the migration route for a large number of species native to the northern parts
of western Russia and north-eastern Scandinavia.
Shipping
Use of shipping is specified for several shipping routes within the marine area (Ö240, Ö248,
Ö250, Ö254, Ö258, Ö263, Ö274, Ö500, Ö502-Ö503). In the South-Eastern Baltic Sea, maritime
traffic is important, with extensive traffic to both foreign and Swedish ports. West of Gotland,
traffic is mainly with Swedish destinations, while international traffic to and from the Gulf of
Finland and the Baltics dominates south and east of Gotland(Havs- och vattenmyndigheten
2017a). Two shipping routes, which extend from ports in the Baltic States (Ventspils and
99
Klaipeda, respectively) and connect to the deep waterway southeast of Gotland in the Swedish
economic zone, constitute public interests of substantial significance. The routes are indicated as
use shipping (Ö254, Ö263). The plan map shows the most important shipping routes, not the
shipping's entire need for surfaces. There must be a safety distance adjacent to the shipping
lanes. Marine spatial plans do not provide guidance on specific safety distances to shipping, but
distances will be required for all areas with the use energy extraction. The distance is adapted to
local conditions following risk assessment(Sjöfartsverket och Transportstyrelsen 2023).
Investigation area for shipping
The plan specifies the maritime investigation area for a route from Gdansk in Poland to
Nynäshamn (Ö254, Ö263, Ö274, Ö500). The marine spatial plan also specifies the marine area
between Norra Midsjöbanken and Hoburgs bank (Ö254, Ö274, Ö500). The area has very high
nature values for the red-listed species harbour porpoise and long-tailed duck, which is also
covered by Natura 2000. Investigations show that the long-tailed duck population is negatively
affected by operational oil spills from ships and that harbour porpoises are disturbed by noise
from ship routes(Havs- och vattenmyndigheten 2016, 2018a). From a nature conservation point
of view, there is reason to investigate the impact of shipping on the nature environment and what
measures may be suitable to reduce the negative impact of shipping.
Several areas in the South-Eastern and Central Baltic Seas are directly or indirectly affected by
the problems described above. Possible measures could affect traffic flows through the deep
water route located south of the Hoburgs bank - Northern Midsjöbanken route and north of the
South Midsjöbanken route, as well as the routes west and east of Gotland and routes in our
neighbouring countries.
Before a final decision is taken on the shipping routes, the problem needs to be investigated. An
investigation needs to include, among other things, analysis of the environmental impact of
maritime traffic and various types of measures, as well as socio-economic consequences for
transport and the shipping industry nationally and internationally, as well as other consequences
resulting from measures. Most changes in shipping require decisions to be made internationally,
such as route changes, and thus need international support and be compatible with international
law, including the law of the sea.
Commercial fishing
The use commercial fishing is reported in several larger areas (Ö254, Ö258, Ö263, Ö274, Ö500,
Ö502-Ö503). Commercial fishing is widespread in the South-Eastern Baltic Sea, but is nowadays
rarely conducted on the offshore banks. Cod fishing has mostly been carried out in the south-
western parts of the marine area with trawl fishing in the open sea and passive fishing closer to
the coast. Pelagic fishing for herring and sprat is carried out in large parts of the lake, but not on
the banks. Certain fishing with passive gear is carried out off the coast of Öland.
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Plan map marine area South-Eastern Baltic Sea
Map 8 Plan map for the Southeast Baltic Sea marine area
101
Area table South-Eastern Baltic Sea
Table 6 Area table South-Eastern Baltic Sea
Area Applications Particular Priority or special
considerations adaptation for
coexistence
Ö240 Defence High nature values: Mammals. Defence takes priority over
Shipping Birds. Reef environment. increased energy production.
Particularly low environmental
impact. The marine spatial plan guides
the priority for use of defence
over extended energy
extraction, as it is not
considered to be able to co-
exist here.
Defense co-exists with
existing wind energy plant.
National interest claims for
total defence and wind farms
overlap.
Ö248 Electricity transmission High nature values: Mammals. Energy extraction is not
General use Birds. Climate refuge for blue indicated as use.
Shipping mussels. Planned area
protection. Reef environment. Energy extraction is not
indicated as use because it is
not considered to be able to
coexist with nature here due to
a high risk of impact on
porpoises or with the interests
of the total defence at present.
Public interest of substantial
significance for nature
conservation and national
interest claims for wind energy
are in the area.
Ö250 Defence
Nature
Shipping
Ö252 Nature
Ö254 Electricity transmission Energy extraction is not
Nature indicated as use.
Shipping
Investigation area for shipping Energy extraction is not
Commercial fishing indicated as use because it is
not considered to be able to
coexist with nature here due to
a high risk of impact on
porpoises or with the interests
of the total defence at present.
Natura 2000, claims of
national interest and public
interest of substantial
significance for wind energy
are located in the area.
Ö258 Electricity transmission High nature values: Mammals. Energy extraction is not
General use Fish spawning. indicated as use.
Shipping
Commercial fishing
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Area Applications Particular Priority or special
considerations adaptation for
coexistence
Energy extraction is not
indicated as use as it is not
deemed to be able to coexist
with nature here with
reference to a high risk of
impact on porpoises or with
the interests of the total
defence at present.
Natura 2000, claims of
national interest and public
interest of substantial
significance for wind energy
are located in the area.
Ö263 Electricity transmission Energy extraction is not
General use indicated as use.
Shipping
Investigation area for shipping Energy use is not indicated as
Commercial fishing use as it is not deemed to be
able to coexist with the
interests of total defence at
present.
In the area there are national
interest claims for commercial
fishing and public interests of
substantial significance for
wind energy.
Ö274 General use Energy extraction is not
Shipping indicated as use.
Investigation area for shipping
Commercial fishing Energy use is not indicated as
use as it is not deemed to be
able to coexist with the
interests of total defence at
present.
In the area there is a public
interest of substantial
significance for wind energy.
Ö500 General use High nature values: Birds. Energy extraction is not
Shipping indicated as use.
Investigation area for
shipping Energy extraction is not
Commercial fishing indicated as use because it is
not deemed to be able to
coexist with the interests of
total defence at present or
with nature.
There is a general interest of
substantial significance for
nature conservation and for
wind energy in the area.
Ö502 Defence High nature values: Birds.
Shipping
Commercial fishing
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Area Applications Particular Priority or special
considerations adaptation for
coexistence
Ö503 Defence Defence takes priority over
Shipping increased energy production.
Commercial fishing
The marine spatial plan guides
the priority for use of defence
over extended energy
extraction, as it is not
considered to be able to co-
exist here.
Defense co-exists with
existing wind energy plant.
National interest claims for
total defence and wind farms
overlap.
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4.4. Southern Baltic Sea
Electricity transmission
The use of electricity transmission corresponds to two transmission cables connecting Sweden to
Lithuania and Poland. The NordBalt cable runs between Sweden and Lithuania. It connects to
Nybro in Sweden and to Klaipeda in Lithuania (Ö247, Ö259). SwePolLink is the second
transmission cable in the marine area and it connects Karlshamn with Slupsk in Poland (Ö259,
Ö508).
Energy extraction
In the southern Baltic Sea, there are good wind conditions for offshore wind energy and the need
is great due to the high demand for electricity in southern Sweden. Offshore banks and coasts
have both good wind conditions and suitable depths for offshore wind turbines. There are two
national interest claims for wind energy near the coast in the municipalities of Kristianstad,
Sölvesborg and Karlshamn. During the Marine spatial planning process, two areas deemed to be
of substantial public interest for wind energy have been identified. The marine spatial plan does
not specify any areas that use energy extraction in the Southern Baltic Sea.
In the area Norra Hanöbukten (Ö508) a permit for a previous wind energy project has expired. In
the area there are also national interest claims for total defence. The Marine spatial plan does not
provide guidance on energy extraction in the area. Energy extraction is not considered to be
compatible with the interests of total defence.
In area Ö508 in the municipalities of Sölvesborg and Karlshamn, there is part of another national
interest claim for wind energy. In the area there are also national interest claims for total defence.
The Government has rejected an application for wind energy in the area on the grounds that
national interest claims for total defence take priority over national interest claims for wind energy
pursuant to the Government Decision of 2016. The marine spatial plan does not provide guidance
on energy extraction in the area. The use is deemed incompatible with the interests of total
defence (Ö508).
In the area of Syd Utklippan and Öland there are two public interests of substantial significance
for wind energy (Ö259). One of the areas overlaps with the use commercial fishing. The uses are
deemed to be able to co-exist as fishing has been conducted with bottom trawls. The more
northern area overlaps with a submarine cable for the transmission grid, which requires that
consultations with Svenska kraftnät be initiated in good time. The area can also affect high
cultural heritage values. The area is also close to the World Heritage Sites Karlskrona and Södra
Öland, which are designated as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. In the area there are also
vulnerable mammals and fish spawning. The marine spatial plan does not guide any of these
areas as the use of energy extraction, as energy extraction is not considered to be compatible
with the interests of total defence in the Baltic Proper at present (Klimat- och
näringslivsdepartementet 2024; Regeringen 2024b). The planning that overlaps with the offshore
area south Utklippan has had its permit application rejected by the Government in an overall
assessment based on conflict with the interests of the Armed Forces(Klimat- och
näringslivsdepartementet 2024).
105
Based on the Government’s decision to reject all applications for offshore wind farms in the
marine area, the overall assessment is that there are currently no conditions for the use energy
extraction in addition to existing permits in the Baltic Proper due to the interests of total defence
(Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet 2024; Regeringen 2024b).
Recreation
There is an area with the use recreation off the city of Karlskrona (Ö260). The area corresponds
national interest claims for recreation. Recreation including pleasure boating, are important in the
Southern Baltic Sea. Along the coast, outside the marine spatial plan area, there are several
areas that are covered by national interest claims for recreation. The coast in the western parts of
Hanö Bay, Simrishamn and Sölvesborg are of national interest for recreation. The possibility of
coexistence with other uses and consideration distances needs to be assessed from a local
perspective.
Defence
Defence is assigned as a use in large parts of the marine area (Ö247, Ö253, Ö260, Ö264, Ö508).
Karlskrona Naval Port is one of Sweden's largest and most important naval bases. The Ravlunda
and Rinkaby artillery ranges have impact areas in the sea off the municipalities of Simrishamn,
Kristianstad and Sölvesborg. Sea training area Hanö is located in the territorial sea and Swedish
exclusive economic zone in Hanö Bay and south of Öland.
At Utklippan (Ö260) the coexistence is indicated between defence, nature, recreation and
shipping. In the northern part of the area there are national interest claims for total defence.
Within the area there are also national interest claims for nature conservation and a marine
nature reserve.
The defence activities should be conducted so that negative impacts is avoided on the nature
values that form the basis of the marine nature reserve.
Cultural environment
The entire coastline is covered by a national interest of a high-exploited coastline. Areas of
national interest for cultural conservation are located along the coast outside the boundaries of
the marine spatial plan area, including in Karlshamn and Karlskrona city. The naval city of
Karlskrona is also designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO as it is one of the best
preserved navy bases in Europe.
Marine cultural heritage values have been identified by the county administrative board. Within
the Southern Baltic Sea is the value area Two outposts (Utklippan and Öland's southern cape)
along the coast and the marine area on Öland's eastern coast down towards Utklippan lighthouse
in the south that is characterized by the development of shipping for at least the last 1000 years.
There is also the value area Haväng, which is located on the coast north of Stenshuvud National
Park and where there are, among other things, prehistoric submarine landscapes. The value area
Ystad-Kåseberga-Sandhammaren also extends into the marine area in the southwest. The
predominant cultural environments in the identified value areas are coastal and archipelago
environments, archaeological sites and communication environments. There are wrecks and
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ancient and cultural-historical remains on the seabed, which requires consideration in the event of
impact on the seabed. For example, within the plan area in Hanöbukten and at additional
locations off the coast of Skåne and Blekinge, there are preserved stone age landscapes on the
seabed.
The need for consideration distances to the value areas, relevant national interest claims and
World Heritage Sites needs to be assessed from a local perspective.
Nature
The marine spatial plan indicates the use nature in several places in the Southern Baltic Sea.
Utklippan (Ö260) is covered by a marine nature reserve, a national interest claim for nature
conservation and an existing HELCOM MPA area. Kiviksbredan off Kristianstad (Ö508) has been
proposed by the County Administrative Board of Skåne County via the Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency as an area to be included in the marine Baltic region of the Natura 2000
network. The area is proposed with reference to the species harbour porpoise, grey seal and
harbour seal, as well as the sandbanks and reef habitat types. The matter is currently being
prepared by the Government Office. South of Simrishamn municipality (Ö268) runs a coastal strip
of high nature values covered by national interest claims for nature conservation.
The marine spatial plan indicates the use of nature at the southern tip of Öland (Ö252–Ö253)
where there is a marine nature reserve. Therefore, in order to promote and ensure ecosystem
services, particular consideration is given to high nature values for several areas. Outside
Karlskrona (Ö247) particular consideration must be shown to reef environments and mammal
areas, and further out i to fish spawning and mammal areas with particularly high environmental
impact (Ö259). In Hanöbukten there are, among other things, red-listed harbour porpoises of the
endangered Baltic Sea population, which are also found in the Swedish Armed Forces' marine
training area (Ö508). In the same area, the plan gives particular consideration to high nature
values for spawning grounds, mammals and birds, as well as climate refuge for the three species
mussel, bladderwrack and herring. In the north-western corner of Hanö Bay, there are additional
areas identified as climate refugia for these three species (Havs- och vattenmyndigheten 2017c).
Sand extraction
The marine spatial plan indicates the use sand extraction off Utklippan (Ö508). The area is
located in a regional environment with expansive built development and municipal interests in
coastal restoration and climate adaptation measures. There are also high nature values that must
be taken into account, which places high demands on coexistence. The area is an important
habitat for cod and future extraction needs to show consideration to the cod spawning periods in
order not to risk negative impacts.
Sand extraction needs to take special account of high cultural heritage values such as wrecks
and ancient and cultural remains on the seabed. Marine cultural heritage values have been
identified by the County Administrative Board(Länsstyrelserna 2024). The value area Two
outposts (Utklippan and Öland's southern cape) includes, among other things, ancient sites.
107
Shipping
The use shipping is assigned to shipping routes through the area (Ö247, Ö253, Ö259-Ö260,
Ö264, Ö267, Ö508). The busiest shipping route in the Baltic Sea passes through the Southern
Baltic Sea in a system of traffic separation along the southern coast of Sweden from the Sound or
from Gedser between Denmark and Germany, via the Bornholmsgatt to southern Öland. A deep
shipping lane also begins here for certain vessels upon passing eastwards through the Baltic
Sea. Maritime traffic goes partly in to the coast, but mainly further towards both Swedish and
foreign ports.
The plan map shows the most important shipping routes, not the shipping's tentire need for
space. There must be a safety distance adjacent to the shipping lanes. Marine spatial plans do
not provide guidance on specific safety distances to shipping, but distances will be required for all
areas with the use energy extraction. The distance is adapted to local conditions following risk
assessment(Sjöfartsverket och Transportstyrelsen 2023).
Commercial fishing
Commercial fishing is assigned to most areas because commercial fishing is widespread in the
Southern Baltic Sea (Ö259, Ö264, Ö267-Ö268, Ö508). The use corresponds to national interest
claims for commercial fishing. Commercial fishing for cod has mostly been conducted with trawls
in the outer sea, but also with passive gear closer to the coast. Commercial pelagic fishing for
herring and sprat takes place in the open sea. Other fishing with passive gear is carried out to
different extents along the coast and in Hanöbukten. In the area, fishing is also carried out by
fishers from other EU countries.
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Plan map marine area South Baltic Sea
Map 9 Plan map for the South Baltic Sea marine area
109
Area table Southern Baltic Sea
Table 7 Area table Southern Baltic Sea
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special adaptation for
coexistence
Ö247 Electricity transmission High nature values: Mammals.
Defence Reef environment.
Shipping
Ö253 Defence
Nature
Shipping
Ö259 Electricity transmission High nature values: Mammals. Energy extraction is not indicated
General use Particularly high environmental as use.
Shipping impact.
Commercial fishing Energy use is not indicated as use
as it is not deemed to be able to
coexist with the interests of total
defence at present.
There are two public interests of
substantial significance for wind
energy in the area.
Ö260 Recreation
Defence
Nature
Shipping
Ö264 Defence
Shipping
Commercial fishing
Ö267 General use
Shipping
Commercial fishing
Ö268 Nature
Commercial fishing
Ö508 Electricity transmission High nature values: Mammals. Defence takes priority over energy
Defence Fish spawning. Birds. Climate extraction.
Sand extraction refuge for blue mussels.
Shipping Climate refuge for The marine spatial plan guides the
Commercial fishing bladderwrack. Climate refuge priority for use defence over energy
for herring. extraction because the uses are not
deemed to be able to coexist here.
In the area there are national
interest claims for total defence and
wind energy.
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4.5. South-West Baltic Sea and Öresund
Electricity transmission
Electricity transmission is available in the northern Øresund (Ö294). The use corresponds to the
Öresund cables, two 400 kV cable connections between Kristinelund in Sweden and
Skibstrupgård in Denmark.
Energy extraction
In the southwestern Baltic Sea and Öresund there are good wind conditions for offshore wind
energy and the need is great due to the high demand for electricity in southern Sweden. Coastal
and offshore banks have good wind conditions and good depth conditions for bottom-based wind
turbines. There are two national interest claims for wind energy in the marine area. Four areas of
substantial public interest for wind energy have been identified During the marine spatial planning
process four areas of substantial significance for wind energy have been identifies.
Lillgrund (Ö287) is Sweden's largest existing offshore wind farm. In the event of a change to the
wind turbines at Lillgrund, the approach area to Copenhagen Airport Kastrup needs to be taken
into account. The area is subject to particular consideration to the interests of total defence. The
area is also subject to particular consideration to high cultural heritage values that should be
taken into account in the event of a change in the area. The area relates to the value areas
Falsterbo peninsula and Landskrona-Pilhaken-Ven where the cultural environments include
communication environments, fishing villages and ancient monuments (Länsstyrelserna 2024).
These areas are also covered by national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation. The
cultural environments concerned also include underwater environments along the coast. The
marine area between Sweden and Denmark is an important migratory route for birds. The marine
spatial plan sets out the coexistence between the usesf energy extraction and nature. Conditions
for generational renewal of the existing windfarm need to be assessed in a future permit process.
Further energy extraction is not considered to be compatible with the interests of total defence in
the Baltic Proper at present (Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet 2024; Regeringen 2024b).
At Krieger's Flak (Ö285) there are good conditions for offshore wind energy. In the area there is a
permit-granted wind energy project where most of the project area is covered by a national
interest claim for wind energy. A smaller part of the authorised area overlaps with a Natura 2000
site. The area is subject to particular consideration to the interests of total defence. The area is
also subject to particular consideration to high cultural heritage values. This mainly concerns the
value area Falsterbo peninsula where the cultural environments include fishing village, coastal
and archipelago environment and ancient sites(Länsstyrelserna 2024). The area is also covered
by national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation. The cultural environments also
include underwater environments along the coast that need to be taken into account in any
establishment.
Syd Sandhammaren till Kullagrund (Ö283) contains a national interest claim as well as three
areas of public interest of substantial significance for wind energy, one of which overlaps with the
national interest claim. All areas can be built with bottom-fixed foundations. The conditions for
wind energy are favourable and the cumulative environmental impact is assessed to be low in the
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areas furthest from land. The area southwest of Ystad and the area southeast of Ystad are both
located in the Swedish exclusive economic zone. Both areas can be built with bottom-fixed
foundations. The conditions for wind energy are favourable and the cumulative environmental
impact is assessed to be low. The coastal area can be built on bottom-fixed foundations. All areas
can have an impact on high cultural heritage values onshore, as well as migration routes for
birds. Establishment in the neighbouring country can thus affect the potential of the Swedish
energy area and needs to be taken into account when using the area. The Government has
rejected permit applications that overlap with public interests of substantial significance to the
south, such as Skåne, due to conflict with the interests of the total defence. (Klimat- och
näringslivsdepartementet 2024) The marine spatial plan does not guide any of these areas as the
use of energy extraction, as energy extraction is not considered to be compatible with the
interests of total defence at present (Regeringen 2024b)
Within Öresund (Ö299) there is an area of public interest of substantial significance for wind
energy within Malmö and Kävlinge municipality. In the area, a planned marine protection area has
been given priority over public interest of substantial significance for wind energy.
Based on the Government’s decision to reject all applications for offshore wind farms in the
marine area, the overall assessment is that there are currently no conditions for further use of
energy extraction in the Baltic Proper due to the interests of total defence(Klimat- och
näringslivsdepartementet 2024; Regeringen 2024b).
If offshore wind energy farms are established, particular consideration shall be given to the
interests of total defence in all areas.
Recreation
The marine spatial plan assigns the use recreation to the area around Ven (Ö292, Ö299) where
there are national interest claims for outdoor recreation. Valuable coastal landscapes stretch
along western and southern Skåne. In the Øresund there is extensive recreational fishing and
tour boat fishing. Recreation and pleasure boating are important in the entire marine area.
Several areas of national interest for outdoor recreation are located outside the marine spatial
plan area, especially along the southern and western coasts of Skåne. The possibility of
coexistence with other uses and consideration distances needs to be assessed from a local
perspective.
Defence
The marine spatial plan assigns the use defence to the impact area in the sea at the Kabusa
firing range in Ystad municipality (Ö281). A small part of an impact area for the total defence at
Falsterbonäset is included in the area covered by the marine spatial plan (Ö284). Due to the
overall scale of the marine spatial plan, defence interests are not reported on the plan map. The
national interest claim for total defence is accommodated because the defence interest and the
uses indicated by the marine spatial plan are deemed to coexist. When developing energy,
particular consideration shall be given to the interests of total defence. Particular consideration to
the interests of total defence is given for all areas with the use energy extraction (Ö285, Ö287).
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Cultural environment
The entire coastline is covered by national interest of high-exploited coastline. Several areas of
national interest for cultural conservation exist along the entire coast outside the marine spatial
plan area. A small part of the national interest claim for cultural heritage conservation at
Falsterbonäset extends into the area covered by the marine spatial plan (Ö284). Due to the
overall scale of the marine spatial plan, interest is not reported on the plan map. The national
interest in cultural heritage conservation is accommodated, as the interest and uses stated in the
marine spatial plan are deemed to coexist.).
Marine cultural heritage values have been identified by the county administrative board. Two
major value areas are identified within and adjacent to the marine area, the Falsterbo peninsula
and Ystad-Kåseberga-Sandhammaren. These value areas include several different cultural
environments such as fishing villages, coastal and archipelago environments and ancient sites.
Here you will find, among other things, the well-known stone ship (ship setting) Ale Stenar and
the characteristic Falsterbonäset. There are also wrecks and ancient and cultural-historical
remains on the seabed in large parts of the marine area, which requires consideration in the
event of any impact on the seabed.
Particular consideration to high cultural heritage values is given for both energy extraction areas
in the South-West Baltic Sea and the Sound (Ö285, Ö287). Consideration distances to the value
areas and relevant national interest needs to be assessed from a local perspective, such as
indirect impact on cultural heritage values of energy extraction in coastal areas. This may mean
that measures are taken to minimise direct, indirect and cumulative impacts on the cultural
environment and may consist of specific requirements for the location and design of wind farms
or through specific requirements during the construction phase of a wind farm.
Nature
The entire coastline is covered by national interest of high-exploited coastline. The marine spatial
plan indicates the use nature in several areas. For the area that stretches from the open sea at
eastern parts of Trelleborg municipality through Falsterbonäset to the southernmost part of
Öresund, the use relates two Natura 2000 sites and national interest claim for nature (Ö284). The
eastern part of the area is covered by the Natura 2000 site Sydvästskånes utsjövatten, which was
established in 2016 for the protection of harbour porpoises. The north-western parts of the area
are covered by national interest claims for nature and a large part of the Natura 2000 site
Falsterbo Peninsula/Falsterbo-Foteviken, which is protected under both birdss Directive and the
Habitats Directive. A marine nature reserve, Måkläppen – Limhamnströskeln, is also located in
the area, which together hosts large and unique bird values and has a geology that gives rise to
an unparalleled sand migration area in Sweden. The existing wind farm Lillgrund (Ö287) is within
the national interest for nature and where the marine spatial plan indicates coexistence between
the use of energy extraction and nature.
The area north of Ven in Öresund (Ö292) includes a Natura 2000 area for harbour porpoises and
important eelgrass beds, the municipal nature reserve Knähaken and national interest claims for
commercial fishing, which refers to spawning area. Lundåkrabukten (Ö290) includes national
interest claims for commercial fishing relating to a spawning area for fish, as well as the nature
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reserve Lundåkrabukten. Off Helsingborg there is the marine nature reserve Grollegrund (Ö294).
There is also an important migratory route for birds of prey. (Hansson 2019)
The marine spatial plan gives particular consideration to high nature values in the Sound (Ö299)
where there are associated high values of importance for conservation and developed ecosystem
services. These are enhanced by the presence of mammals, birds, valuable bottom habitats and
fish spawning grounds. At the same time as the nature values are high, the impact of human
activities is great. The new marine nature reserve Flädierev is located in the coastal area outside
Bjärred and overlaps with the marine spatial plan area (Ö299). The overlapping part of the nature
reserve is too small to be illustrated in the plan map, but affects a smaller area at the inner level
border.
South of Skåne, particular consideration is given to high nature values in Syd Sandhammaren to
Kullagrund and Kabusa firing range (Ö281, Ö283). There is a large bird migration across the area
and the place is considered valuable for cod spawning. Particular consideration to high nature
values in the area also harmonizes with the German marine spatial plan which includes a
particularly important bird corridor from Rügen to Skåne. East of Ystad there are valuable reefs
for fish play as well as an important bird and mammal area.
Sand extraction
South of Ystad (Ö281, Ö283) there is a public interest of substantial significance for sand
extraction. It corresponds to an area with the use of sand extraction. Previously, there were
permits for sand extraction until 2021. The sand was used for beach replenishment and extraction
has taken place in the years 2011, 2014, 2017 and 2020 (Ystads kommun 2023). Monitoring
shows that oversedimentation of previous traces from extraction takes place through the
geological processes in the area(Sveriges geologiska undersökning 2018). Sand extraction
needs to take particular consideration of high cultural heritage values such as wrecks and ancient
and cultural remains on the seabed. Marine cultural heritage values have been identified by the
county administrative board (Länsstyrelserna 2024). The value area Ystad-Kåseberga-
Sandhammaren includes ancient sites and other values.
Investigation area for sand extraction
Off Falsterbo (Ö284) there is an investigation area for sand extraction in the exclusive economic
zone. Suitability for sand extraction has been assessed for parts of an investigation area and is
reported in the report Conditions for extraction of marine sand and gravel in Sweden (Sveriges
geologiska undersökning 2017). The proposed sand extraction area at Falsterbo coincides with
the westernmost parts of the Natura 2000 site Sydvästskånes utsjövatten. The Natura 2000 site
has been established to strengthen the protection of the Belt Sea population and the Baltic Sea
harbour porpoise population respectively. The high geographical mobility of the harbour porpoise
has resulted in a relatively large Natura 2000 site. The overall assessment in the marine spatial
plan is that coexistence with sand extraction may be possible based on extraction being proposed
on the outskirts of the Natura 2000 area The seasonal variations of the harbour porpoise,
together with the fact that the environmental impact of sand extraction is expected to arise in a
limited area for a limited period of time, strengthen the possibility of coexistence between the
uses of nature and sand extraction. Sand extraction needs to be adapted to Natura 2000
protection. An activity or measure that may significantly affect a site protected under Chapter 4,
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Section 8 of the Environmental Code, i.e., Natura 2000, always requires a special permit
assessment.
To the east of this area is the Natura 2000 site Falsterbo Peninsula-Foteviken, which is also a
marine nature reserve and part of the national interest for nature conservation. In this area
located in the territorial sea and outside the sand extraction investigation area, sand extraction is
identified as an activity posing )a risk of harm (Länsstyrelsen i Skåne län 2005 . In the report
Prerequisites for the extraction of marine sand and gravel in Sweden(Sveriges geologiska
undersökning 2017), it is assessed that sand extraction may be possible in an exclusive
economic zone outside the Natura 2000 site Falstebohalvön-Foteviken. In the exclusive
economic zone there are ecologically valuable sites where ground vegetation and mussel banks
occur as well as where it is found in postglacial sand and gravel. The assessment is that sand
extraction may be possible west and southwest of these sites.
The sand extraction area at Falsterbo is located within an area with designated traffic separation
for shipping. Interests can coexist. The traffic estimated to result from sand extraction is
considered low(Sveriges geologiska undersökning 2017, 2018). Existing levels of maritime traffic
mean that sand extraction represents a negligible addition to the noise impact.
For the two sand extraction areas, there is a potential impact on commercial fishing, which at
Falsterbo is also amplified by cumulative environmental effects from Danish extraction in the
Sound. The impact is considered to be limited if low-impact extraction methods are used and if
extraction is carried out at times when fish are not spawning (Swedish Geological Survey, 2017).
In case of sand extraction, particular consideration should be taken to high cultural heritage
values such as wrecks and ancient and cultural remains on the seabed. Marine cultural heritage
values have been identified by the county administrative board (Länsstyrelserna 2024). The value
area Falsterbo Peninsula includes, among other things, ancient sites.
Shipping
The use shipping is assigned to shipping routes through the marine area (Ö281, Ö283-Ö284,
Ö292, Ö294, Ö299). The busiest shipping route in the Baltic Sea runs through the South-West
Baltic Sea in a system of traffic separations along the south coast of Sweden from Öresund via
Falsterbo in Vellinge municipality or from Gedser, between Denmark and Germany, to
Bornholmsgattet. Maritime traffic continues towards both Swedish and foreign ports. Öresund is
one of the few routes to the Baltic Sea for large vessels. The plan map shows the most important
shipping routes, not the shipping's entire need for surfaces. There must be a safety distance
adjacent to the shipping lanes. Marine spatial plans do not provide guidance on specific safety
distances to shipping, but distances will be required for all areas with the use energy extraction.
The distance is adapted to local conditions following risk assessment(Sjöfartsverket och
Transportstyrelsen 2023).
Commercial fishing
Commercial fishing is widespread and therefore the marine spatial plan indicates the use
commercial fishing in a large part of the marine area (Ö281, Ö283-Ö284, Ö290, Ö294, Ö299).
The use corresponds to national interest claims for commercial fishing. Commercial fishing for
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cod has been conducted mainly with trawl in the open sea, but also with passive gear in the
Öresund. Pelagic commercial fishing for herring and sprat is carried out throughout the open sea.
Other fishing with passive gear is carried out to varying degrees along the coast. In the Öresund
bottom trawling is not allowed, and there is only a fishing with passive gear.
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Plan map marine area Southwest Baltic Sea and Öresund
Map 10 Plan map for the the Southwest Baltic Sea and Öresund marine area
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Area table South-West Baltic Sea and Öresund
Table 8 Area table South-West Baltic Sea and Öresund
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special adaptation
for coexistence
Ö281 Defence High nature values: Birds. Reef
Sand extraction environment.
Shipping
Commercial fishing
Ö283 General use High nature values: Fish Energy extraction is not
Sand extraction spawning. Birds. indicated as use.
Shipping
Commercial fishing Energy extraction is not
indicated as use because it is
not deemed to be able to
coexist with the interests of
total defence at present or with
shipping.
In the area there are national
interest claims for shipping and
wind farms as well as public
interest of substantial
significance for wind energy.
Ö284 Nature Sand extraction is adapted to
Investigation area for nature.
sand extraction
Shipping Public interest of substantial
Commercial fishing significance for sand extraction
overlaps with Natura 2000 site.
Sand extraction should be
adapted to nature values, for
example in terms of time period
and location of abstraction. See
further text under Sand Mining,
South-West Baltic Sea above.
Ö285 Energy extraction The interests of total defence
High cultural heritage values:
Fishing village. Prehistoric
environment. Trading venue.
Coastal and archipelago
environment. Coastal/shipping
society.
High nature values: Mammals.
Birds. Reef environment.
Ö287 Energy extraction The interests of total defence Energy production takes
Nature High cultural heritage values: priority over commercial
Fishing village. Prehistoric fishing.
environment. the defence
environment; Trading venue. The marine spatial plan
Communication environment. indicates that the use of energy
Coastal and archipelago extraction is given priority over
environment. Coastal/shipping commercial fishing because the
society. urban environment; uses are not deemed to be
able to co-exist here.
There is a wind farm in the
area. The needs of commercial
fishing are met in the
surrounding area. General
interest of substantial
significance for wind energy.
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Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special adaptation
for coexistence
overlaps with national interest
claims for commercial fishing.
Ö290 Nature
Commercial fishing
Ö292 Recreation
Nature
Shipping
Ö294 Electricity transmission
Recreation
Nature
Shipping
Commercial fishing
Ö299 Recreation High nature values: Birds. Nature takes priority over
General use energy production.
Shipping
Commercial fishing Energy extraction is not
indicated as use because it is
not deemed to be able to co-
exist with nature values in the
area.
There is a general interest of
substantial significance for
nature conservation and wind
farms in the area. Area
protection is planned.
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5. Skagerrak and Kattegat: Guidance and
considerations
General information about the marine spatial plan area
Here is a summary of the main features of the planning for the marine spatial plan area. The
direction of use and considerations for the marine areas of the marine spatial plan area are also
reported.
The plan map shall be interpreted on the approximate scale between 1:700 000 and 1:1 000 000.
The boundaries and markings in the map are clear based on the strategic level of the marine
spatial plans.
The laying of data and telecommunications cables, power cables, pipelines and gas pipelines
shall be enabled where suitable. The operation and maintenance of data and telecommunications
cables, power cables, pipelines and gas pipelines shall always be possible. This applies to the
entire planning area.
There are two marine areas in the Skagerrak/Kattegat:
• Northern Skagerrak/Kattegat
• Southern Skagerrak/Kattegat
Renewable electricity production
The marine spatial plans will contribute to achieving the society's goal of 100 per cent fossil-free
electricity production by 2040. The conditions for offshore wind energy are good in the
Skagerrak/Kattegat. However, there is great competition for space in the Skagerrak/Kattegat,
including commercial fishing and shipping.
The starting point for the planning has been updated data for new or changed areas for energy
extraction in the marine spatial plans (Energimyndigheten 2023). The planning of energy
extraction areas is based on an overall assessment of how the marine spatial plan can best
contribute to achieving the energy targets in terms of the needs of wind energy and other
interests. Areas for energy extraction are proposed both in the territorial sea and in the exclusive
economic zone. A total of nine areas with the use energy extraction or investigation area for
energy extraction are listed. Some proposed sites are affected by Natura 2000 legislation, which
entails that wind farms can only be allowed there if they do not risk damaging or disturbing the
habitats that the site is intended to protect or cause disturbance to the species to be protected
that could significantly hamper the conservation of the species in the site. Two energy extraction
areas in the Skagerrak/Kattegat are designated as investigation areas, E(utr). The reasons are
uncertainties about the impact of wind energy on migratory birds or that the establishment of wind
energy requires what is known as a Natura 2000 permit. There are four offshore wind permits that
have not yet been realised.
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When developing energy, particular consideration shall be given to the interests of total defence.
Proposed areas with the use energy extraction in the Skagerrak/Kattegat entail the risk of
cumulative effects on the interests of the total defence. This risk shall be taken into account,
which may limit the extent of the development, collectively or in individual areas. In all areas
where energy is used, particular consideration is therefore given to the interests of total defence.
With the exception of one energy area, particular consideration is given to high cultural heritage
values in all energy areas. The values are based on places on land and ancient and cultural
remains on the seabed that can be affected by installations at sea. In three areas, particular
consideration is also given to high nature values. This means that there is a special need for
future measures in management, planning and licensing to ensure ecosystem services linked to
the values, structures and conditions of the areas.
Close to the coast beyond the boundaries of the marine spatial plan, offshore wind energy may
be suitable at a limited extent. Due to the overall scale of the marine spatial plan, energy
extraction is not assessed below a certain size. Smaller, coastal establishments need to be
assessed from a local perspective.
High nature and cultural heritage values and a national park under
the surface
There are large areas of high nature value in the marine spatial plan area and several of them are
nature reserves and Natura 2000 sites. The Skagerrak/Kattegat is also home to Kosterhavet
National Park, where nature conservation is primarily related to underwater environments.
In the Skagerrak/Kattegat there are marine mammals such as harbour porpoises and seals as
well as spawning and nursery areas for several fish species. There are two very important routes
for spring migrating birds of prey and other species crossing the area. It also houses shallow
areas of international importance for wintering seabirds. The area is also an important link and
passage for birds moving north-south between marine areas.
Along the coasts adjacent to the marine spatial plan area and in the archipelago, there are also
several areas with high cultural heritage values. Value areas in the coast are characterized by the
development of fishing and shipping over the years and that these have long been the main
industries for the population along the Skagerrak/Kattegat. Several cultural environments also
include stories about the development of coastal agriculture and archipelago settlements over
time. The marine area also includes cultural-historical landscapes below the surface
characterized by sunken bays and settlements as well as historical marine battlefields.
Many activities
There are attractive areas for people in many places within the marine spatial plan area of the
Skagerrak/Kattegat. Along the entire coast, recreation and tourism are important. Pleasure
boating is extensive with important routes along the coasts and to Denmark.
Maritime traffic is extensive throughout the plan area, even near the coast. A significant part of
the traffic to and from the Baltic Sea passes through the Skagerrak/Kattegat and the Sound and
there are several ports on the west coast with great importance for Swedish foreign trade. There
is extensive regulation with traffic separation for shipping in the Skagerrak/Kattegat. The marine
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spatial plan follows designated national interest claims. The claims are supplemented by a
shipping route that constitutes a public interest of substantial significancein the northern
Skagerrak.
Sweden's total defence has interests in the marine spatial plan area, including marine training
areas.
There is extensive commercial fishing in the Skagerrak/Kattegat for both fish and shellfish caught
with different types of gear. Commercial fishing is extensive in terms of value and geography, and
to some extent varies from year to year and over a longer period of time. Therefore, the area for
the use of commercial fishing is large in the marine spatial plan. The planning of energy
extraction areas has taken into account the potential cumulative impact on commercial fisheries.
In one case, energy extraction is indicated as the most suitable use as commercial fishing is
deemed not to be able to coexist with energy extraction.
While there are good conditions for various activities, the environmental situation in the
Skagerrak/Kattegat needs to be improved in order to achieve good environmental status.
Many activities work well together in the planning area. Coexistence is often regulated. This may,
for example, involve areas being intercepted during defence exercises or rules on how ships may
operate in shipping lanes that are part of traffic separation systems.
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Marine spatial plan map Marine spatial plan area
Skagerrak/Kattegatt
Map 11 Plan map for the Skagerrak/Kattegat
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5.1. Skagerrak
Energy extraction
In the Skagerrak/Kattegat there are good conditions for wind energy with high wind speeds. It is
deep which requires floating foundations. From north of Gothenburg and south, it is shallower and
possible with bottom-fixed foundations.
The area North Bratten and the North Koster Sea (V352) in the exclusive exclusive economic
zone and the territorial sea to the west of the Koster Sea National Park are designated as an
energy extraction areas. The area is considered to be of public interest of substantial significance
for wind energy. The western part of the public interest of substantial significance for wind energy
is not included in area V352 in view of the overall impact on commercial fisheries. The part not
included is part of area V351. Area V352 is indicated with particular consideration to the interests
of the total defence. The area is also subject to particular consideration to high cultural heritage
values. At Koster, Väderöarna (islands) and Ramsvikslandet there are coastal and archipelago
environments, fairway environments and communication environments (County Administrative
Board 2024). The Koster value area also includes several national interest claims for cultural
conservation and a marine national park. Underwater environments along the coast can be
directly affected and need to be taken into account in any establishment.
The area V357 along westwards from Tjörn in the EEZ is indicated with the use energy
extraction. The area includes a project with permit for the establishment of wind energy in
accordance with the Act on Swedish Exclusive Economic Zone. In area V357 there is both public
interest of substantial significance for wind energy and national interest claims for commercial
fishing. The area is suitable for floating wind turbines. Therefore, it is not considered possible to
conduct fishing with active gear in the area if offshore wind energy is established. In view of the
need for fossil-free electricity production and an assessment of the overall impact on fishing for
Northern prawn and Norway lobster in the Skagerrak/Kattegat, energy extraction is indicated as
the most suitable use. If several areas nearby are realised, there is a risk of cumulative effects on
bird migration routes. Particular consideration to high nature values is also given due to birds.
The area is also subject to particular consideration to high cultural heritage values. In the coastal
and archipelago area there is Västra Orust and Marstrand - Pater Noster with fairway
environments, fortress and scan environment and ancient monument
environments(Länsstyrelserna 2024). Underwater environments along the coast can be directly
affected and need to be taken into account in an establishment. The area is also specified with
particular consideration to the interests of total defence.
In and around area V356 and V348 there is extensive commercial fishing for northern shrimp
There is also a public interest of substantial significance for wind energy that overlaps with
national interest claims for commercial fishing. The area is suitable for floating wind turbines.
Therefore, it is not considered possible to conduct fishing with active gear in the area if offshore
wind energy is established. In view of the importance of the area for northern shrimp fishing,
commercial fishing is indicated as the most suitable use.
In area V320 there is both a national interest claim for defence and a public interest of substantial
significance for wind energy. The uses are not deemed to co-exist and defence is indicated as the
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most suitable use. In area V358 there are two public interests of substantial significance for wind
energy and part of a national interest claim for commercial fishing. In view of the cumulative
impact on commercial fisheries, the use of energy is not indicated.
Investigation areas for energy extraction
The area Northwest Bratten (V360) is designated as the investigation area for energy extraction.
In the area there is a public interest of substantial significance for wind energy and shipping. The
area has been adapted to the commercial fishing carried out in the area. Vessel traffic is
expected to be able to travel in a north-south direction east of the area. Wind farms are therefore
given priority over shipping. The site is designated as an investigation area because it is located
within the Bratten Natura 2000 site. This entails that a special permit assessment is required in
accordance with Chapter 7, Section 28a of the Environmental Code, a so-called Natura 2000
assessment. The area is also specified with particular consideration to the interests of total
defence.
The area Northwest Öckerö (V359) is designated as an investigation area for energy extraction
with particular consideration to total defence interests and high nature values. Uncertainties in the
impact on bird migration routes lead to the area being designated as an investigation area. In
area V359 there is part of a public interest of substantial significance for wind energy as well as
national interest claims for commercial fishing throughout the part located in the territorial sea and
a small part in the exclusive economic zone. Coexistence requires adaptation. The eastern part of
the public interest of substantial significance for wind energy is not included in area V359 in view
of the overall impact on commercial fisheries. The area is also subject to particular consideration
to high cultural heritage values. The area largely overlaps with the North Kattegat value area,
which includes a large number of ship remnants from the two world wars that can be directly
affected and need to be taken into account in any establishment. Particular attention to high
cultural heritage values also includes the value areas Känsö, Västra Orust and Marstrand - Pater
Noster where the cultural environments include, among other things, fairway environments,
fortress environments and ancient relic environments (Länsstyrelserna 2024).
Recreation
Recreation and pleasure boating are extensive throughout the marine area, often to and from
Norway and Denmark. The Bohuslän archipelago is an area with extensive tourism and there are
many nature harbours and marinas. The coast outside the marine spatial plan area in the
northern part of the Skagerrak/Kattegat, to the north of Lysekil, is of national interest for outdoor
recreation. The entire coastline outside the marine spatial plan area is covered by national
interest claims for outdoor recreation. Any wind energy installation can have a visual impact in the
area. The possibility of coexistence with other uses and consideration distances needs to be
assessed from a local perspective.
Defence
The marine spatial plan assigns the use defence to the Skagen military training area, which
extends from Sotenäs in the north to Tjörn in the south, across the entire territorial sea and in the
exclusive economic zone (V320-V322, V336, V339, V347). Further south, almost entirely within
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the municipality of Gothenburg, the military training area Känsö is located, partly within the area
V319 (indicated with the use defence)
In area V320 there is both a national interest claim for defence and a public interest of substantial
significance for wind energy. The uses are not deemed to co-exist and defence is indicated as the
most suitable use.
When developing energy, particular consideration shall be given to the interests of total defence.
Particular consideration to the interests of total defence is therefore indicated for all areas with
energy extraction.
Cultural environment
The coast along the southern part of the northern part of Skagerrak/Kattegat is covered by a
highly developed coastline of national interest. The northern stretch of coastline is covered by
national interest unbroken coastline. Areas of national interest for cultural conservation are
located along the coast outside the marine spatial plane area, including lighthouse environments
and a larger area around Gothenburg's southern archipelago.
Marine cultural heritage values have been identified by the county administrative board and are
found along the entire coastline and in one case also mostly within the marine area (value area
Norra Kattegatt). The predominant cultural environments are fairway environments, coastal and
archipelago environments and archaeological sites. There are also defence environments and
coastal/shipping communities. (Länsstyrelserna 2024) The value area North Kattegat is
characterized by ship remains from the two world wars. This requires consideration in the event
of an impact on the seabed.
The marine spatial plan gives particular consideration to high cultural heritage values in three
energy extraction areas (V352, V357, V359). Consideration distances to the value areas and
relevant national interest needs to be assessed from a local perspective, such as indirect impact
on cultural heritage values of energy extraction in coastal areas. This may mean that measures
are taken to minimise direct, indirect and cumulative effects on the cultural environment and may
consist of specific requirements for the location and design of wind farms or through specific
requirements during the construction phase of a wind farm.
Nature
The marine spatial plan indicates the use of nature in many parts of the marine area. In the west
is the Natura 2000 site Bratten (V336, V360, V366). In parts of Bratten's Natura 2000 site, there
are fishing-free zones where it is prohibited to engage in commercial fishing activities to protect
vulnerable bottom habitats.
Around the Koster Islands, use of nature at Strömstad (V344) and Tanum (V349) is specified in
areas with national parks, nature reserves and Natura 2000.
In several areas, particular consideration shall be given to high nature values (V319, V321, V324,
V339, V347, V348, V350, V357). In some cases, this refers to areas where site protection is
planned in all or part of the areas. Around the Väderöarna (islands) and Svabergsgrunden,
preliminary studies for the establishment of marine nature reserves have been initiated due to
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high values of rare sea bottom environments. An important migratory route for birds of prey
stretches from Skagen towards the Bohus coast.
Shipping
The marine spatial plan specifies the use of shipping in large parts of the marine area (V319-
V324, V339, V344, V347-V351, V353, V356, V358, V366), with several shipping routes from Oslo
to the Southern North Sea and towards the coast and out past Skagen towards the
Skagerrak/Kattegat. In areas V360 there is public interest of substantial significance for both wind
farms and shipping. The uses are not considered to be able to co-exist. North-South shipping is
expected to move eastwards. Therefore, the use shipping in a north-south route through areas
V348, V351, V356 and V366 is reported.
Routes from the Baltic Sea extend through the Öresund, Kattegat and Skagerrak, and further into
the world's oceans. Sweden also has routes to Denmark and Norway. Gothenburg and Lysekil
are home to two of Sweden's largest ports.
In Northern Bohuslän, a joint comprehensive plan specifies an area for activities between two sea
routes (V350) in the municipalities of Tanum and Sotenäs. The area is specified in the marine
spatial plan as general use with particular consideration to high nature values. When establishing
any operations, consideration of maritime safety issues is important. The plan map shows the
most important shipping routes, not the shipping's total need for surfaces. There must be a safety
distance adjacent to the shipping lanes. Marine spatial plans do not provide guidance on specific
safety distances to shipping, but distances will be required for all areas with the use energy
extraction. The distance is adapted to local conditions following risk assessment (Sjöfartsverket
och Transportstyrelsen 2023).
Several wind farms in the same marine area may pose a risk of cumulative impacts on the
mobility and safety of shipping when the available space is limited. That risk shall be taken into
account.
Commercial fishing
Commercial fishing is extensive in the Skagerrak/Kattegat and is a use in a large part of the
marine area (V318-V321, V323-V324, V336, V339, V344, V347-V349, V350-V351, V353-V354,
V356, V358, V366). Northern shrimp fishing is carried out extensively in the northern part of the
area. Fishing for Norway lobster is conducted throughout the marine area except along the west.
Fishing areas are more stable than in other fisheries. Closer to the coast, there is creel fishing for
Norway lobsters. Fishing with passive gear takes place to different extents throughout the area,
slightly more intense in the south. Pelagic fishing is conducted from Sotenäs and south.
Within and around V356 there is extensive commercial fishing for Northern prawn. There is also a
public interest of substantial significance for wind energy that overlaps with national interest
claims for commercial fishing. The area is suitable for floating wind turbines. Therefore, it is not
considered possible to conduct fishing with active gear in the area if offshore wind energy is
established. In view of the importance of the area for shrimp fishing, commercial fishing is
indicated as the most suitable use.
127
An area of public interest of substantial significance for wind energy overlaps with a public
interest of substantial significance for commercial fisheries in area V351. Commercial fishing is
defined as use taking into account the cumulative impact on commercial fishing.
In area V358 there is part of a national interest claim for commercial fishing and two public
interests of substantial significance for wind energy. In view of the cumulative impact on
commercial fisheries, the use of energy is not indicated.
West (23-38 nautical miles) of the island of Måseskär there is a dumping area with 28 vessels
containing chemical warfare agents to an unknown extent. The guidance of the marine spatial
plan is that commercial fishing is not a suitable use in this dumping area. Environmentally
hazardous substances have leaked into the marine environment and at the same time there is
active trawl fishing in the vicinity of the wrecks. Trawls and otters in contact with the seabed tear
up sediments and spread the substances over a wider geographical area. Data from studies
show that degradation products from chemical warfare agents are found in food fish and
crustaceans in the area. All in all, this means that commercial fishing should not be carried out in
the immediate area. The area is geographically small in relation to the geographical scale of the
plan map and is therefore not marked in the plan map.
128
Plan map marine area Skagerrak
Map 12 Plan for the Skagerrak marine area
129
Area table Northern North Sea
Table 9 Area table Northern North Sea
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special adaptation
for coexistence
V319 Electricity High nature values: Soft bottom
transmission with sea pens. Reef environment.
Defence
Shipping
Commercial fishing
V320 Defence Defence takes priority over energy
Shipping extraction.
Commercial fishing
The marine spatial plan guides the
priority for use of defence over
energy extraction. The uses are not
expected to co-exist here.
In the area there are national
interest claims for total defence and
public interest of substantial
significance for wind energy.
V321 Defence High nature values: Soft bottom
Shipping with sea pens. Planned area
Commercial fishing protection. Reef environment.
V322 Defence
Shipping
Commercial fishing
V323 General use
Shipping
Commercial fishing
V324 General use High nature values: Mammals.
Shipping Fish spawning. Reef
Commercial fishing environment.
V336 Defence
Nature
Commercial fishing
V339 Defence High nature values: Soft bottom
Shipping with sea pens. Planned area
Commercial fishing protection. Reef environment.
V344 Natur
Shipping
Commercial fishing
V347 Defence High nature values: Mammals.
Shipping Fish spawning. High originality.
Commercial fishing Reef environment.
V348 General use High nature values: Mammals. Commercial fishing takes priority
Shipping Fish spawning. Particularly high over energy production.
Commercial fishing environmental impact.
The MSP provides guidance on the
priority for commercial fishing over
energy extraction. The uses are not
expected to co-exist here.
In the area there are national
interest claims for commercial
fishing and general interest of
substantial significance for wind
energy.
130
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special adaptation
for coexistence
V349 Nature
Shipping
Commercial fishing
V350 General use High nature values: Soft bottom
Shipping with sea pens. Planned area
Commercial fishing protection. Reef environment.
V351 General use Commercial fishing takes priority
Shipping over energy production.
Commercial fishing
The MSP provides guidance on the
priority for commercial fishing over
energy extraction. The uses are not
expected to co-exist here.
In the area there are national
interest claims for commercial
fishing and general interest of
substantial significance for wind
energy and commercial fishing.
V352 Energy extraction The interests of total defence
High cultural heritage values:
Prehistoric environment.
Communication environment.
Coastal and archipelago
environment. Cultivation
landscape.
V353 General use
Shipping
Commercial fishing
V356 General use Commercial fishing takes priority
Shipping over energy production.
Commercial fishing
The MSP provides guidance on the
priority for commercial fishing over
energy extraction. The uses are not
expected to co-exist here.
In the area there are national
interest claims for commercial
fishing and general interest of
substantial significance for wind
energy.
V357 Energy extraction The interests of total defence Energy production takes priority
High cultural heritage values: over commercial fishing.
Fishing village. Prehistoric
environment. the defence The marine spatial plan provides
environment; Communication guidance on the priority for the use
environment. Coastal and of energy extraction over
archipelago environment. commercial fishing. The uses are
Coastal/shipping society. not expected to co-exist here.
production environment; urban
environment; In the area there are national
High nature values: Birds. interest claims for commercial
fishing and general interest of
substantial significance for wind
energy.
131
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special adaptation
for coexistence
V358 General use Commercial fishing takes priority
Shipping over energy production.
Commercial fishing
The MSP provides guidance on the
priority for commercial fishing over
energy extraction. The uses are not
expected to co-exist here.
In the area there are national
interest claims for commercial
fishing and two public interests of
substantial significance for wind
energy.
V359 Field of inquiry energy The interests of total defence Coexistence between commercial
extraction High cultural heritage values: fishing and energy production
Commercial fishing Fishing village. Prehistoric requires adaptation.
environment. the defence
environment; Coastal and In the area there are national
archipelago environment. interest claims for commercial
Coastal/shipping society. fishing and general interest of
production environment; urban substantial significance for wind
environment; energy
V360 Field of inquiry energy The interests of total defence Energy production is adapted to
extraction nature.
Nature
An activity or measure that may
significantly affect a Natura 2000
site always requires a special permit
assessment in accordance with
Chapter 7, Section 28a of the
Environmental Code.
V366 Nature Commercial fishing takes priority
Shipping over energy production.
Commercial fishing
The MSP provides guidance on the
priority for commercial fishing over
energy extraction. The uses are not
expected to co-exist here.
In the area there is a public interest
of substantial significance for
commercial fishing and wind
energy.
132
5.2. Kattegat
Electricity transmission
Electricity transmission corresponds to the two parallel transmission grid cables Konti-Skan 1 and
Konti-Skan 2 that run between Lindome in Sweden and Vester Hassing in Jutland, Denmark. Two
cable connections for 400 kV between Kristinelund in Sweden and Skibstrupgård in Denmark, the
so-called Öresund cables are located at the border between the marine spatial plan area
Skagerrak/Kattegat and the Baltic Sea. They are listed in area Ö294 in the marine area Öresund
in the Baltic Sea Marine spatial plan.
Energy extraction
In the marine area there are good conditions for wind energy with high wind speeds. The depth
allows for bottom-fixed foundations. The transmission network on land is well developed since the
Ringhals nuclear power plant is located on the coast of Halland. In the Southern North Sea, five
areas are specified using energy extraction (V303, V305, V317, V361, V364).
Area North Lilla Middelgrund (V361) is located west of the city of Varberg and includes a project
that has been granted a permit under the Act on Swedish Exclusive Economic Zone. The area is
considered to be of general interest of substantial significance for wind energy and overlaps with
national interest claims for commercial fishing. An establishment of wind energy is considered to
be able to coexist with commercial fishing if the activities are adapted to each other. The area is
defined with particular consideration to the interests of total defence. The area is also subject to
particular consideration to high nature and cultural heritage values. The nature values refer to
birds, including razorbill. In terms of cultural environment, a number of value areas are located
along the coast of Halland where the cultural environments include, among other things, fairway
environments, recreational environments, fishing villages, coastal and archipelago environments,
and fortress and scanning environments(Länsstyrelserna 2024). These areas are also covered by
national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation. There are also underwater
environments that can be directly affected and need to be taken into account in any
establishment. East of area V361 there is a public interest of substantial significance and national
interest for commercial fishing. In order to reduce the cumulative impact on commercial fisheries,
energy extraction is not specified in the area located in area V365.
The area Norr Rödebanke (V303) located west of Falkenberg and includes a project with a permit
for the establishment of wind energy according to the Act on Swedish Exclusive Economic Zone.
The area is considered to be of general interest of substantial significance for wind energy and
overlaps with national interest claims for commercial fishing. An establishment of wind energy is
considered to be able to coexist with the national interest in commercial fishing if the activities are
adapted to each other. The area is defined with particular consideration to the interests of total
defence. The area is also subject to particular consideration to high nature and cultural heritage
values. The nature values refer to seabirds and migratory birds of prey. In terms of cultural
environment, a number of value areas are located along the coast of Halland where the cultural
environments include, among other things, fairway environments, recreational environments,
fishing villages, coastal and archipelago environments, and fortress environments
- 133 -
(Länsstyrelserna 2024). These areas are also covered by national interest claims for cultural
heritage conservation.
In the territorial sea in the area Southeast Morup Bank (V305) located outside Falkenberg, there
is a project with a permit for the establishment of wind energy. In the part of area V305 that is not
covered by the licensed project, there is instead a public interest of substantial significance for
wind energy and a small part of a larger national interest claim for commercial fishing. A future
establishment of wind energy is expected to coexist with the national interest in commercial
fishing if the activities are adapted to each other. The area is also subject to particular
consideration to high cultural heritage values. This includes several value areas along the coast
of Halland, including fairway environments, recreational environments, fishing villages, coastal
and archipelago environments, and fortress and scanning environments (Länsstyrelserna 2024).
These areas are also covered by national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation. The
cultural environments concerned also include underwater environments that can be directly
affected and need to be taken into account in any establishment.
The area Syd Morups bank (V317) is located west of the area of the project with permit for the
establishment of wind energy outside Falkenberg in V305. Area V317 is indicated with the use
nature and energy extraction and is included in the previously decided marine spatial plan for the
Skagerrak/Kattegat in 2022 (Regeringen 2022a). The area is considered to be a public interest of
substantial significance for wind energy that overlaps with a national interest claim for commercial
fishing related to spawning grounds. Provided that the establishment of wind energy does not
harm the spawning area for fish, coexistence is considered possible in area V317. The area is
also designated with particular consideration to high cultural heritage values. This includes a
number of value areas along the coast of the county Halland where the cultural environments
include fairway environments, recreational environments, fishing villages, coastal and archipelago
environments, and fortress and scanning environments (Länsstyrelserna 2024). These areas are
also covered by national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation. There are also
underwater environments that can be directly affected and need to be taken into account in any
establishment.
On Stora Middelgrund, which is located in the north-western part of area V307, there is a national
interest claim for wind energy, in Sweden's exclusive economic zone. In the southern part of the
bank there is a national interest claim for outdoor recreation. The area is located in a Natura 2000
site, which places special demands on energy extraction if coexistence is to be possible. The
conservation values consist of valuable bottom habitats as well as porpoises and seabirds. The
Government has rejected an application for the establishment of a wind farm at the bank. The
County Administrative Board has rejected the application for a Natura 2000 permit under Chapter
7, Section 28a of the Environmental Code. There is some overlap with the fairway in the eastern
part of the area. For these reasons, energy extraction is not indicated as a use.
In area West Halmstad (V364) in the municipality of Halmstad there is a public interest of
substantial significance for wind energy. The area is indicated with the use energy extraction.
National interest claims for commercial fishing overlap to a small extent with V364. Commercial
fishing is carried out in the area as a whole. The area is also designated with particular
consideration to high cultural heritage values. This includes several value areas along the coast
of Halland and the coast of the northwest Scania with fairway environments, recreational
environments, fishing villages and coastal and archipelago environments (Länsstyrelserna 2024).
134
These areas are also covered by national interest claims for cultural heritage conservation. The
area is coastal and adaptation of the area may be determined on the basis of local and regional
needs.
There is a public interest of substantial significance for wind energy in area V367about 4-6 km
from Skrea beach. On the coast near the wind farm area is an area of national interest for outdoor
life and area of national interest for outdoor recreation. Energy extraction is not indicated as use
due to outdoor recreation and cultural environment values on the coast. A small part of the public
interest of substantial significance for wind energy is located in area V304. Energy extraction is
not listed in area V304 due to outdoor recreation and cultural heritage values on the coast.
In area V367 south of area V317 there is a public interest of substantial significance for wind
energy. In order to reduce the cumulative impact on commercial fishing and cultural and
recreational values in the coastal environment, the use of energy extraction in the area is not
specified.
When developing energy in the Southern North Sea, particular consideration shall be given to the
interests of total defence in all energy areas. Several wind farms entail the risk of cumulative
effects on the interests of total defence. This cumulative risk shall be taken into account, which
may limit the extent of the development, collectively or in individual areas.
Recreation
The marine spatial plan assigns the use recreation to some of the valuable offshore banks (V307-
V309, V313, V365, V367) and an area from Kullen and south towards Öresund (V307) that is
covered by national interest claims for outdoor recreation. The offshore banks are also covered
by Natura 2000, and recreational fishing has been restricted by regulation. For example, on parts
of the offshore banks Fladen (V313), Lilla Middelgrund (V309) and Stora Middelgrund (V307) and
in the southern Kattegat (V307), recreational fishing is prohibited for conservation reasons.
Recreation and recreational fishing are otherwise extensive, both along the coast and on the
offshore banks. Important passages for pleasure boat traffic run between Sweden and Denmark,
including to Læsø (island). Large parts of the coast, outside the marine spatial plan area, are also
of national interest for outdoor recreation. The possibility of coexistence with other uses and
consideration distances needs to be assessed from a local perspective.
There is a public interest of substantial significance for wind energy about 4-6 km from Skrea
beach (V367). On the coast there is an area of national interest claim for recreation, Skrea
strand- Tylösand based on criteria such as tranquility and untouchedness. On the coast there is
also an area of national interest for outdoor recreation. The establishment of wind energy has a
major visual impact on experience values in an area that is used by many people. Energy
extraction is not indicated as use taking into account high outdoor and cultural heritage values on
the coast.
Defence
Outside Halmstad, the marine spatial plan assigns the use defence to the impact area of the
Ringenäs firing range (V304).
135
When developing energy, particular consideration shall be given to the interests of total defence.
Particular consideration to the interests of total defence is given for all areas where energy is
used.
Cultural environment
The entire coastline is covered by national interest of high-exploited coastline. Areas of national
interest for cultural conservation are located along the coast outside the marine spatial plan area,
such as Kullaberg-Krapperup south of Ängelholm, Träslövsläge south of Varberg and lighthouse
environments such as Nidingen and Tylön lighthouses.
Marine cultural heritage values have been identified by the county administrative boards and are
located both along the coastline and within the marine spatial plan area. The dominant cultural
environments are coastal and archipelago environments, archaeological sites, fairway
environments and recreational environments. There are also castles and military environments.
(Länsstyrelserna 2024)
The value area Stora Middelgrund, which is located within the marine area as a whole, is
characterized by the fact that the cultural environment values in this area are below the surface in
the form of sunken bays and settlements. The value area Laholmsbukten towards the coast is
also characterised by the fact that the cultural heritage values are mainly below the surface. This
requires consideration in the event of an impact on the seabed. At the far southeast, the value
areas Bjärehalvön and Kullahalvön extend into the marine spatial plane area. The value areas
refer to coastal communities including fishing villages, ancient relics, recreational environment
and fairway environment. The lighthouse here is a dominant feature of the landscape.
The marine spatial plan gives particular consideration to high cultural heritage values in all five
energy areas in the Southern North Sea (V303, V305, V317, V361, V364). Consideration
distances to the value areas and relevant national interest needs to be assessed from a local
perspective, such as indirect impact on cultural heritage values of energy extraction in coastal
areas. This may mean that measures are taken to minimise direct, indirect and cumulative effects
on the cultural environment and may consist of specific requirements for the location and design
of wind farms or through specific requirements during the construction phase of a wind farm.
Nature
The marine spatial plan indicates the use nature for a large area in the Southern Kattegat (V307)
covered by Natura 2000, the nature reserve Skånska Kattegatt and national interest claims for
nature conservation on the lake bank Rödebanke and Stora Middelgrund in the north and at
Hallands Väderö east. Nature use is also indicated for Morup's bank (V306), Lilla Middelgrund
(V309) and Fladen (V313), which have high nature values and constitute Natura 2000 areas in
parts of the areas. Lilla Middelgrund (V309) and Fladen (V313) are also covered by national
interest claims for nature conservation and the area around Morup's bank constitutes a national
interest claim for a spawning area for fish (V306, V317). Balgö outside Varberg (V314) is a
Natura 2000 site.
On the offshore banks there are high values for mainly birds and harbour porpoises, important
spawning areas for fish and valuable bottom environments. The Swedish Environmental
136
Protection Agency has identified the offshore banks Fladen and Lilla Middelgrund as particularly
valuable (Naturvårdsverket 2006).
The marine spatial plan gives particular consideration to high nature values in five areas in the
Southern North Sea (V303, V308, V315–V316, V361). High nature values are also found outside
the Swedish territorial sea and economic zone. An important migratory route for birds stretches
from Denmark towards the coast of Halland.
Shipping
The marine spatial plan indicates s the use of shipping in large parts of the Southern North Sea
(V304-V309, V313, V315-V316, V365, V367) in routes from north to south and into the ports
along the coasts, both on the Swedish and Danish sides. The use shipping includes areas of
national interest for shipping which include areas with traffic separation systems required for safe
shipping. Maritime traffic is important and extensive because the route through the Kattegat is
one of the few routes into the Baltic Sea for large vessels. In the south, outside Stora and Lilla
Middelgrund, there is the choice of Öresund or Stora Belt, both of which limit the height and depth
of the vessels. The Great Belt Bridge limits the height.
The other route into the Baltic Sea is the Kiel Canal, which imposes restrictions on the width,
length and depth of the vessels. In order to ensure safe navigation through the shallow waters of
the Southern North Sea, there is a traffic separation system for traffic north of Skagen and a
shipping route closer to the Swedish coast for traffic between Skagen and Öresund.
The plan map shows the most important shipping routes, not the shipping's entire need for
surfaces. There must be a safety distance adjacent to the shipping lanes. Marine spatial plans do
not provide guidance on specific safety distances to shipping, but distances will be required for all
areas with the use energy extraction. The distance is adapted to local conditions following risk
assessment(Sjöfartsverket och Transportstyrelsen 2023).
Several wind farms in the same marine area may pose a risk of cumulative impacts on the
mobility and safety of shipping when the available space is limited. That risk shall be taken into
account.
Commercial fishing
The marine spatial plan indicates the use of commercial fishing in large parts of the Southern
North Sea (V303, V305, V307-V308, V313, V315-V316, V361, V364, V365, V367). The use
corresponds to the delimitation of national interest claims for commercial fishing catch areas
Important spawning grounds for cod in the central and southern parts of the Southern North Sea
are covered by areas where the marine spatial plan indicates use nature.
Commercial fishing is widespread in the southern Skagerrak/Kattegat but also highly regulated,
including fully and partially closed to both commercial and recreational fishing. For example,
fishing is prohibited on parts of the offshore banks Fladen (V313), Lilla Middelgrund (V309) and
Stora Middelgrund (V307) and in the southern Kattegat (V307) for conservation reasons. In the
marine area, fishing is mainly conducted for Norway lobster and pelagic fish. Cages are used to a
lesser extent to fish for Norway lobster and lobster closer to the coast. Fishing with passive gear
takes place to different extents throughout the area.
137
In area V365 there is a public interest of substantial significance and national interest for
commercial fishing. In order to reduce the cumulative impact on commercial fisheries, energy
extraction in the area is not specified.
138
Plan map marine area Kattegat
Map 13 Plan map for the Kattegat marine area
139
Area table Kattegat
Table 10 Area table Kattegat
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special
adaptation for coexistence
V303 Energy extraction The interests of total defence Coexistence between commercial
Commercial High cultural heritage values: Village fishing and energy production
fishing or church environment. Fishing requires adaptation.
village. Prehistoric environment. the
defence environment; Communication In the area there is a public interest
environment. Coastal and archipelago of substantial significance for wind
environment. production environment; energy and national interest claims
Recreational environment. urban for commercial fishing.
environment;
High nature values: Birds.
V304 Defence Defence takes priority over energy
Shipping extraction.
The marine spatial plan guides the
priority for use of defence over
energy extraction. The uses are not
expected to co-exist here.
Energy extraction is not specified
with regard to recreational and
cultural heritage values on the
coast.
There is a part of a public interest of
substantial significance for wind
energy in the area.
In the coastal area there is a
national interest in outdoor
recreation and a national interest in
outdoor recreation and conservation
of the cultural environment.
V305 Energy extraction The interests of total defence Energy production takes priority
Shipping High cultural heritage values: Village over shipping.
Commercial or church environment. Fishing
fishing village. Prehistoric environment. the The marine spatial plan provides
defence environment; Communication guidance on the priority for the use
environment. Coastal and archipelago of energy extraction over shipping.
environment. production environment; The applications are not considered
Recreational environment. urban to be able to co-exist here (in the
environment; case of a wind energy installation).
National interest claims for wind
energy overlap to a small extent
with national interest claims for
shipping.
V306 Nature
Shipping
V307 Electricity Nature and shipping are given
transmission priority over energy extraction.
Recreation
Nature The marine spatial plan guides the
Shipping priority for nature use and shipping
Commercial over energy extraction. The uses
fishing are not expected to co-exist here.
National interest claims for wind
140
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special
adaptation for coexistence
energy overlap with national interest
claims for shipping, nature
conservation and Natura 2000 area.
V308 Recreation High nature values: Birds. Planned Energy extraction is adapted to the
General use area protection. Reef environment. given state.
Shipping
Commercial After adaptation of energy
fishing extraction in zone V303, energy
extraction is not specified in zone
V308.
In the area there is a public interest
of substantial significance for wind
energy.
V309 Recreation
Nature
Shipping
V313 Recreation
Nature
Shipping
Commercial
fishing
V314 Nature
V315 Electricity High nature values: Mammals. Fish
transmission spawning. Reef environment.
General use Particularly high environmental
Shipping impact.
Commercial
fishing
V316 General use High nature values: Mammals. Fish
Shipping spawning.
Commercial
fishing
V317 Energy extraction The interests of total defence Energy production is adapted to
Nature High cultural heritage values: Village nature.
or church environment. Fishing
village. Prehistoric environment. the Coexistence is considered possible
defence environment; Communication if wind farms are adapted to the
environment. Coastal and archipelago spawning area for fish. See text
environment. production environment; belonging to the heading Marine
Recreational environment. urban area Kattegat, Energy extraction
environment; section. General interest of
substantial significance for wind
energy overlaps with national
interest claims for commercial
fishing spawning grounds.
V361 Energy extraction The interests of total defence Coexistence between commercial
Commercial High cultural heritage values: Village fishing and energy production
fishing or church environment. Fishing requires adaptation.
village. Prehistoric environment. the
defence environment; Manor or castle In the area there is a public interest
environment. Communication of substantial significance for wind
environment. Coastal and archipelago energy and national interest claims
environment. production environment; for commercial fishing.
Recreational environment. urban
environment;
141
Area Applications Particular considerations Priority or special
adaptation for coexistence
V364 Energy extraction The interests of total defence
Commercial High cultural heritage values: Fishing
fishing village. Prehistoric environment. the
defence environment; Communication
environment. Coastal and archipelago
environment. Coastal/shipping
society. production environment;
Recreational environment. urban
environment;
V365 Electricity Commercial fishing takes priority
transmission over energy production.
Recreation
General use The MSP guides the priority for the
Shipping use of commercial fishing over
Commercial energy extraction as the use of
fishing commercial fishing is deemed to be
more suitable.
National interest claims for
commercial fishing overlap with
public interest of substantial
significance for wind energy west of
Varberg.
V367 General use Energy extraction not indicated as
Recreation use
Shipping
Commercial The MSP guides the priority for the
fishing use of commercial fishing over
energy extraction as the use of
commercial fishing is deemed to be
more suitable.
Energy extraction is not indicated
as use taking into account outdoor
recreation and cultural heritage
values on the coast.
There are national interest claims
for commercial fishing and two
areas of public interest of
substantial significance for wind
energy north and northwest of
Halmstad. In the coastal area, there
is a national interest in outdoor
recreation, a national interest in
outdoor recreation and conservation
of the cultural environment, and a
general interest of substantial
significance for conservation of the
cultural environment. National
interest in outdoor recreation
extends into the marine area.
142
6. Implication and consequences
6.1. Implication
National overall planning
Spatial planning means that society's various goals shall be integrated into a sustainable whole,
where the spatial context is made visible and decided in a planning document. A plan shall
provide stability in the form of predictability of future use, while at the same time allowing flexibility
for managing changing external factors, developed knowledge bases and the development of
new technologies. National marine spatial planning is a relatively new form of spatial planning in
Sweden, where the holistic perspective has to relate to ongoing sector planning and
management. The marine spatial plan shall also integrate economic objectives, social objectives
and environmental objectives. Conflicting objectives that concern the use of the sea are clarified
when different societal objectives are given a spatial expression.
Marine spatial planning differs in some aspects from land use planning, in terms of flow and
dynamics of use, as well as in relation to claims and different levels of planning, from the local
perspective to the international. In national marine spatial planning, planning and presentation
have been developed in such a way as to provide guidance to marine spatial plans at the
appropriate level. The description of designations for use and consideration in marine spatial
plans is an expression of this. The marine spatial plans provide guidance on which functions and
values need to be preserved and developed, so that guidance to authorities, municipalities and
operators provides flexibility in relation to changing conditions in the future. At the same time as
marine spatial plans provide guidance on which uses and which functions should take priority in a
particular area, management and measures can be adapted in the future.
Different levels of planning
National marine spatial planning is comprehensive and at an overall level; in municipal spatial
planning, more detailed planning is carried out close to land and along the coast. Many activities
take place in the coastal zone, which is part of municipal and regional planning, but not in national
marine spatial planning. Cities and regions have extensive possibilities in planning local and
regional development. There is also potential for joint further development of planning between
municipal, regional and national levels to strengthen the land-sea perspective.
In national marine spatial planning, Sweden also cooperates with neighbouring countries.
International cooperation includes method development, joint planning documents and monitoring
of marine spatial plans. Sweden also strives for a functional coherence with the marine spatial
plans of neighbouring countries. By functional we mean that the planning does not counteract the
planning of neighbouring countries.
Coexistence
In many respects, marine spatial plans give the priority for uses already underway in the sea. The
coexistence of different activities in the same place may be regulated and already established,
but a developed management is needed for more operations to be accommodated and for the
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values that should be preserved to be maintained and developed. For the expansion of offshore
wind energy to be possible there must be new solutions for coexistence with other operations.
The conditions for coexistence between offshore wind energy, commercial fishing, aquaculture
and nature conservation vary between the different activities and how the activities are carried out
in different locations. Opportunities for coexistence can be increased through active dialogue
between different actors and operators, stronger guidance and guidance on how coexistence
should work, increased knowledge of, for example, the impact on nature and maritime safety, and
the development of technical and site-specific solutions (Havs- och vattenmyndigheten 2023).
The conditions for coexistence between defence and energy production have proved challenging
in the marine spatial planning process and permit procedures for offshore wind energy. The
Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management shares the view expressed in FOI’s report
that efforts are needed from several actors, both in terms of technological development but also
in the process of planning and permitting offshore wind energy, in order to increase opportunities
for coexistence(Odell et al. 2022).
Use of the sea
Renewable energy
Energy extraction is a relatively new use of the sea that requires marine spatial planning. There
are good technical conditions for offshore wind energy in Sweden's marine areas. There is also
great interest in investing in permit applications and studies.
Between Sweden and neighbouring countries there are several connections for electricity
transmission. The transmission network is the base for the use electricity transmission in the
marine spatial plan.
The Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management has drawn up this proposal within the
framework of a government assignment on amended areas for energy extraction in marine spatial
plans. The assignment’s objective is to enable an additional 90 terawatt hours of annual electricity
production at sea in addition to the planned production contained in the previously adopted
marine spatial plans (Regeringen 2022b). The total target is 120 terawatt hours. The use energy
extraction refers to offshore wind energy. According to the assignment, the Skagerrak/Kattegat
marine spatial plan area, as well as the northern, central and south-eastern Baltic Seas marine
areas should be prioritized geographically (Regeringen 2022b).
The starting point for planning for offshore wind energy has primarily been the basis for new or
changed areas for energy extraction in the marine spatial plans (Energimyndigheten 2023).
The Swedish Armed Forces have indicated that it would better as for coexistence with military
defence interests if the areas for offshore wind energy are located in the Skagerrak/Kattegat and
the Gulf of Bothnia rather than in Baltic Sea (Energimyndigheten 2023). Based on the
assessment made by the Government regarding the impact of offshore wind energy on the
Swedish Armed Forces' ability to cope with the changed security situation( Klimat- och
näringslivsdepartementet 2024; Regeringen 2024b), no additional areas with the use energy
extraction are listed in the draft marine spatial plan, than those already included the adopted in
plan for the Baltic Sea. An area in the adopted plan for the Baltic Sea has also been removed.
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At the same time as the planning process is ongoing, planning for offshore wind energy takes
place in and outside the Swedish marine spatial plan areas. The interest in planning within the
Swedish marine spatial plan areas is significantly greater than the objective of the assignment,
and thus also takes place outside the areas proposed in the marine spatial plan.
Proposals and objectives
The draft marine spatial plans identify 24 areas for the use of energy extraction. Of these, five are
areas of investigation. 10 of the areas are listed in Sweden’s exclusive economic zone and 14 of
the areas are wholly or partly located in the territorial sea. Areas in the territorial sea and the
exclusive economic zone account for 20 per cent and 80 per cent respectively of the total area
with the use energy extraction in the proposal.
The total area of the areas amounts to about 7700 km2 of which 1100 km2 are located in the
Skagerrak/Kattegat, about 6,600 km2 in the Gulf of Bothnia and about 80 km2 in the Baltic Sea.
As a percentage, energy areas make up about 11 per cent of the Skagerrak/Kattegat, 17 per cent
of the Gulf of Bothnia and 0.1 per cent of the Baltic Sea's plan areas. Altogether, the areas make
up about 6 per cent of the area of the marine spatial plans.
In order to assess the potential for electricity production, assumptions are made about:
• a power density of 5 MW/km2
• 4000 full load hours per year
Power density is a term for the installed power on a surface. Assuming that each turbine has a
power of 20 MW, the power density of 5 MW/ km2 means that the turbines are two kilometers
apart. Full load hours are a measure of efficiency and are calculated as annual production divided
by installed power, which then indicates how many hours of production at full power are required
to reach the annual production. These two values together give a value with estimated production
per area. The marine spatial plans use the same assumptions as in the Swedish Energy
Agency’s planning documents (Energimyndigheten 2023). An analysis of the projects that have
applied for permits at the time of publication of the proposal shows that the applications have
spread in terms of power density and full load hours, which largely assume higher values. This
implies that projects during the permit process may present a different production than what the
marine spatial plan does.
Theoretically, the proposed energy areas and investigation areas for energy extraction in the draft
marine spatial plan to provide about 150 TWh of annual production if fully utilised.
However, the assessment is that permits for energy extraction will not be applied for or given in
all or all parts of the areas specified for energy extraction due to several uncertainties.
Uncertainties about which areas, and to what extent the areas can be utilised relate to the total
defence military interests, nature protection and overall, cumulative impact on nature values,
adaptation to commercial fishing and winter navigation, and municipal endorsement in the
territorial sea. Other aspects are consideration of the cultural environment, recreation and
landscape values. Willingness to invest and profitability are also crucial for wind energy to be
realised in the end, as well as the possibility to connect to the transmission grid as well as the
development of coexistence solutions.
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The need for safety distances between wind farms and ship routes will affect the extent of the
expandable areas. An overall assessment is that around 15-20% of the planned area energy
extraction areas will be needed to accommodate safety distances.
Based on the goal of enabling a total of 120 TWh of annual electricity production, the entire
surface area needs to be realised, which cannot be seen as realistic.
For the areas that are investigation areas, the impact on other interests such as bird migration
routes and conservation values in Natura 2000 areas needs to be specifically investigated in the
further planning or application processes. As marine spatial plans are indicative and based on
broad considerations, this entails that not all areas for energy extraction in marine spatial plans
should be utilised or utilised in their entirety. The fact that the marine spatial plans provide
guidance on priority paves the way for future decisions. In permit processes, energy projects are
tested against the functions and values to be preserved, including values in Natura 2000 sites.
Requirements for adaptation are then set in relation to, among other things, local conditions and
planned activities. In all energy extraction areas particular consideration shall be given to the
interests of total defence and in several areas particular consideration shall be given to high
nature or cultural environmental values.
Shipping, commercial fishing and defence
The marine spatial plans provide good conditions for the future development and increase of
international trade and increasing transport of goods and people by sea both between countries
around the Baltic Sea and to and from ports beyond the Baltic Sea. The marine spatial plans thus
contribute to the Baltic Sea Strategy's goal of increasing prosperity and connecting Baltic Sea
region, but also to transport policy goals that transport should be shifted from road to sea and rail.
The use of shipping has, with a few exceptions, also been adapted to the planning of shipping in
Sweden's neighbouring countries. The Baltic Sea marine spatial plan’s guidance imply that
maritime traffic and shipping routes around Gotland be investigated on the basis that the
environmental impact of shipping needs to be reduced, especially negative impact on birds and
harbour porpoises, while at the same time we need to have an efficient, climate-smart and safe
traffic system. Safety distances are defined within the wind energy permitting process; the marine
spatial plan does not contain site-specific guidance on safety distances. In the Gulf of Bothnia
marine spatial plan, there are special conditions when there are thick and extensive ice coverage,
especially in the northern parts. This affects the conditions for shipping, which needs large areas
and access to alternative shipping routes to ensure accessibility. Fixed installations such as wind
farms therefore pose a particular challenge for winter navigation, as they risk limiting the flexibility
considered necessary for accessibility. This shall be taken into account when establishing wind
energy and other fixed installations at sea.
The marine spatial plans reflect the social objectives of continuing and developing commercial
fishing by providing guidance on the priority for commercial fishing in important fishing areas.
Through areas with nature use and particular consideration to high nature values, marine spatial
plans contribute to the conditions for sustainable fish stocks that provide future development of
commercial fishing. Commercial fishing generally coexists well with other activities such as
shipping and military training activities. Commercial fishing is affected by the establishment of
wind energy. Adaptation of both fishing activities and wind energy may be necessary. Based on
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current knowledge, fishing with active gear is considered to be very difficult or impossible to
conduct in areas with floating wind turbines.
The ambition has been to reduce the future negative impact on commercial fishing from the
establishment of offshore wind energy. In view of the Swedish Energy Agency's proposal for
areas for energy extraction (Energimyndigheten 2023), several areas have been deleted or
reduced in size due to the need for accessibility for commercial fishing. In an area in the
Skagerrak/Kattegat, the guidance implies that wind farms are given priority over commercial
fishing. Commercial fishing and floating foundations for wind turbines are not expected to coexist.
There are also areas with the use commercial fishing where there is an overlap with the use
energy extraction in the marine spatial plans. The assessment is that coexistence may be
possible because the depth allows bottom-fixed foundations, but coexistence is managed in the
permit process and in subsequent design. Adaptation can have an impact on fishing, but also on
the establishment of wind energy.
Both shipping and commercial fishing are mobile activities that need large areas. For shipping,
the plan maps show the routes that are of particular importance for maintaining the transport
function. Maritime traffic can use all areas that do not have direct restrictions, which is also a
prerequisite for the designated routes to have such a limited geographical area. Vessel traffic of
very great importance to Sweden can occur and thus also occurs outside the routes marked for
shipping in the marine spatial plan maps.
For commercial fishing, the plan maps show important catch areas. However, fishing can to take
place in other areas, in accordance with current fishing regulations. For future claims from other
businesses, precise location and site use needs to be analyzed in a more detailed planning.
Balancing needs to be done on the basis of the aspect that the functions of fishing and shipping
should be maintained.
Prerequisites for defence and security are expressed in marine spatial plans through the use of
defence that includes maritime training areas and the impact areas needed for facilities on land.
Security is a prerequisite for the development of society, both for the environment and business
as well as social welfare. Sweden's military geographical situation and the deteriorating security
situation in the immediate area also means that the defence interest is expressed in marine
spatial plans by allowing energy extraction to stand back in the Baltic Proper (see under the
heading Renewable energy above). During the marine spatial planning process, the Swedish
Armed Forces analysed about 40 energy areas from the consultation proposal, with the
conclusion that a certain expansion can take place without causing damage to the Armed Forces'
functions, provided that it takes place in the right place and under the right conditions. In the
current marine spatial planning process, it has not been possible to use this data to assess the
most suitable use in marine spatial plans, as it risks disclosing information that could cause
significant harm to total defence or otherwise to national security. The Swedish Armed Forces'
claims are thus not fully known in the marine spatial planning process.
Sand extraction
The marine spatial plan indicates the use sand extraction in four areas, three of which have not
previously been sand extraction. The extraction of marine sand contributes to meeting society's
need for sand for shore feeding as part of climate adaptation and for construction. Material supply
from Swedish marine areas is an alternative to imports from other countries. The areas that have
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been identified are those that are deemed to be the most suitable in terms of nature values,
biological and geological factors, technical characteristics and sediment dynamics. The detailed
distribution of the areas reported in the plan map should be determined only in a permit
assessment. The planning documents describe the precautions that are required to enable
quarrying operations to take place with a minimised negative impact.
Cultural heritage and recreation
Cultural heritage that is taken into account in marine spatial planning consists partly of cultural-
historical remains in the sea and partly cultural environments along the coast. The marine spatial
plans draw attention to the risk of both direct, indirect and cumulative impacts on cultural heritage
values. The marine spatial plans state that particular consideration shall be given to high cultural
heritage values in areas designated for energy extraction that are deemed to have an impact on
cultural heritage that is mainly located in the coastal zone. The location and delimitation of energy
extraction areas has in some cases been adapted based on an assessment of several factors
including valuable cultural environments. Mainly however, the marine spatial plan's guidance on
the cultural environment is a guidance on which energy extraction areas that need to be
investigated in relation to the culture environment, what the values consist of where further
information can be found and that these values need to be taken into account in further planning
and permit assessment. Coastal county administrative boards have developed planning evidence
(Länsstyrelserna 2024) for the marine cultural environment that has been used to strengthen
guidance in marine spatial plans.
There is a continued need for a comprehensive planning evidence on recreational values, relating
to how the use of the sea interacts with local, regional and national outdoor values and what
significance these have for marine spatial planning. In addition to this, there is a need to highlight
the social values that the cultural environment and recreation in the coastal and marine area
provide in terms of health and well-being.
Strengthening ecosystem services
A marine spatial plan is one of several instruments in the marine and water environment
management that will help us achieve the environmental quality objectives and good
environmental status of the sea. Generally, it is about balancing interests to ensure that we
provide the conditions for the ecosystem services from the sea that we humans need. To a large
extent, employment and development in various industries depend on the ocean's ecosystem
services, such as food, experiences and oxygen.
The marine spatial plans provide guidance on areas with the use nature based on existing area
protection, national interest claims for nature conservation and national interest claims for
commercial fishing related to spawning and nursery areas.
The marine spatial plans’ guidance also includes a new way of steering towards the development
of valuable ecosystem services, in addition to established forms of nature protection, to the
benefit of many interests. Guidance on particular consideration to high nature values draws
attention to the nature values that all ocean management and activities need to take into account,
not least in view of the need for resilience, i.e. resilience in the context of ongoing climate change.
In this way, good environmental status of the sea is also achieved and maintained.
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The marine spatial plan also provides guidance on particular consideration to high cultural
heritage values, which is a way of considering cultural environments that are mainly outside, but
that can be affected by activities within, the marine spatial plans.
The guidance on particular consideration concerns planning and licensing, but is also addressed
to the work on the development of marine management. The areas listed are the basis for
management with the aim that the relevant authorities, together with the sectors concerned, work
further on the designated areas, to see if specific measures need to be taken so that particular
consideration is taken of the high nature and cultural values. The intention is also to guide actors
to plan activities and activities, in time and space and with the possibility of adapting to changing
conditions, so that they, within their own resources, contribute to the ocean's ecosystem services.
6.2. Consequences
Summary
The impact assessment describes the impact of the proposed marine spatial plan on
environmental, social and economic aspects linked to the state of the sea, maritime industries
and maritime interests. The assessments are carried out at an overall level in accordance with
the Environmental Code’s rules on strategic environmental assessment. The focus is on
assessing direct and indirect effects and impacts in the short and long term linked to the plan’s
guidance on the most suitable use and particular consideration. Assessments are made for each
marine spatial plan, the Gulf of Bothnia, the Baltic Sea and the Skagerrak/Kattegat. An overall
assessment is also carried out jointly for the three marine spatial planning areas and an
assessment of the significance of the plan in relation to relevant plans, programmes and
strategies.
In the impact assessment, there is a strong focus on assessing the impact from the proposed
energy areas. New proposals for energy areas are the main difference from the agreed marine
spatial plans. It is also the focus of the government assignment from 2022 to expand the area for
offshore energy production in order to achieve an objective of enabling an annual electricity
production of 120 TWh in the territorial sea and exclusive economic zone.
Overall assessment of the impact of offshore wind energy
Transboundary and cumulative impacts
In the territorial seas and exclusive economic zones of Sweden and neighbouring countries,
human activity is continuously increasing. Planned offshore wind energy is expected to account
for a sharp increase in the short and medium term, in Sweden and in neighbouring countries.
Therefore, consideration needs to be given to the risk of cumulative effects of mainly offshore
wind energy, but also other activities. The energy areas in the plan proposals can contribute to
cumulative effects in the Gulf of Bothnia and the Skagerrak/Kattegat. No new energy areas are
proposed in the Baltic Sea, and therefore no new contributions to cumulative effects in the marine
spatial plan area are follows.
The risk of cumulative effects is particularly high in areas with a high concentration of energy
areas where there are high nature values and ecological links of international importance, such
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as migratory birds and harbour porpoises. The impact on the cultural environment and landscape
is also important in cases where energy expansion is visible from neighbouring countries'
coastlines. Cumulative effects may also occur in relation to shipping where energy establishment
can increase the risk of incidents and reduce maritime safety. When it comes to fishing, there is
extensive foreign fishing in all Swedish marine areas and offshore wind energy can affect the
conditions for several fleets. Offshore wind energy in Swedish marine areas can also affect other
countries' defence-related activities and vice versa. Cross-border interactions on cumulative
effects are necessary to assess cumulative impacts from a sea basin perspective.
Gulf of Bothnia
The marine spatial plan’s guidance in the Gulf of Bothnia has implications for the marine
environment and biodiversity. Ecological aspects that risk being negatively affected by proposed
energy areas include the ringed seal, which is dependent on ice in order to reproduce and rear its
pups. There are uncertainties regarding the effect of offshore wind energy on the conditions for
ice formation. The risk of impact on migrating salmon is considered to be limited if energy
establishment in shallow coastal areas is avoided. The impact on the bottom environment is
expected to be small, as well as the impact on fish and spawning grounds. For migratory birds in
particular, the plan proposal entails potentially major negative effects in connection with proposed
energy areas at Finngrunden. Even wintering birds can be negatively affected in this area. The
area areas with particular consideration to high nature values has been expanded in the plan
proposal, with a special focus on birds, seals and bottom habitats. This is expected to have
positive effects on the protection of biodiversity and contribute to a network of green
infrastructure.
For impacts related to climate, water and air, the assessment is that the marine spatial plan
guidance has a major positive effect in that it guides increased opportunities for renewable
energy production that can replace energy types that generate greenhouse gas emissions.
However, the expansion of energy areas may mean changes in the steaming distances for
shipping and commercial fishing. The effect of increased mileage is difficult to assess on the
basis of available information. Both offshore wind energy construction and sand extraction can
lead to local impacts in the form of clouding and dispersal of sediments, but the assessment is
that this does not affect the marine environment in the long term.
In terms of impact on landscapes, cultural environments and recreation, several energy areas risk
visually affecting national interests, world heritage sites and coastal areas with landscape
protection, such as Haparanda Archipelago, the High Coast and Hornslandet. Energy areas
within a distance of 35 kilometres from cultural sites have been designated ‘k’ for particular
consideration of high cultural heritage values, which indicates that particular consideration should
be given to visual impact when establishing energy in these areas.
The plan proposal for the Gulf of Bothnia has the potential to provide energy production of
approximately 130 TWh per year. The Gulf of Bothnia is expected to connect mainly to bidding
zones 1 and 2 and the supply of electricity production is needed for energy transition, primarily for
industry. Energy establishment also leads to positive indirect employment effects. However, the
proposed energy expansion affects other interests in the marine area. In the Gulf of Bothnia there
are both Swedish and Finnish commercial fishing whose access to fishing areas can be affected.
The impact on commercial fishing is negligible in the Bothnian Bay and North Kvarken, and
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medium-sized in the Southern Bothnian Sea. Indirect effects may occur in value chains linked to
the fisheries processing industry and landing ports. Shipping is affected partly by a slightly longer
mileage in the changed fairway in the Southern Bothnian Sea, and partly by the potential impact
on navigation and maritime safety of the increased presence of fixed installations that offshore
wind farms would entail. The plan indicates that safety distances should be established when
designing and permitting energy areas in order to minimise collision risks. The potential impact on
ice formation is an uncertainty factor for winter navigation in the Gulf of Bothnia.
Baltic
The plan does not provide guidance on more energy areas in the Baltic Sea than the existing or
already licensed wind farms. This means that the plan's guidance on energy extraction does not
contribute to negative effects on the nature environment, cultural environment, recreation,
tourism, shipping, fish and commercial fishing in the plan area.
At the same time, this means that a large potential for energy extraction is not exploited. A large
contribution to renewable and fossil-free energy in southern Sweden is lacking, as well as the
potential climate benefit an establishment would have provided space for. Limited guidance on
energy extraction and energy areas in the plan area is negative for the wind industry, including
wind energy project companies and affected sectors. New electricity production in the Baltic Sea
is expected to connect mainly to bidding zones 3 and 4. In order to achieve this goal, Sweden's
offshore wind energy must be realised with a higher concentration in other marine spatial plan
areas.
Investigation areas for shipping around Gotland as well as sand extraction areas remain from the
adopted marine spatial plan.
Skagerrak/Kattegat
The plan proposal for the Skagerrak/Kattegat contains energy areas in important migratory routes
for birds and bats. This poses a high risk of negative impacts. The risk of cumulative effects is
high as several of the energy areas with projects that have received permits are assessed to
have a negative effect on birds. Realisation of the energy areas would have a cumulative
negative effect on harbour porpoises in both the northern and southern parts of the
Skagerrak/Kattegat. Negative effects on bottom environments are considered to be limited if
nature values are taken into account in the design. A potential positive local net effect may arise if
energy use replaces bottom trawling in areas especially in the Skagerrak. However, the impact on
commercial fishing may mean an intensification of fishing in adjacent accessible areas with
increased pressure in them.
For impacts related to climate, water and air, the assessment is that the marine spatial plan
guidance has a great positive effect in that it guides on increased opportunities for renewable
energy production that can replace fossil fuels and also fuels in the long term, which would lead
to lower levels of air emissions. However, the expansion of energy areas may mean changes in
steaming distances for commercial fishing, with the risk of some increase in emissions as a
result. The construction of offshore wind energy can lead to local impacts in the form of clouding
and dispersal of sediments, but the assessment is that this does not affect the marine
environment in the long term.
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The west coast has high values from a cultural environment and recreation point of view. A large
number of areas of national interest and national interest claims for the cultural environment and
outdoor life can be found along the coast. The plan's proposals for energy areas, particularly in
Halland, are expected to have a major negative effect on these interests, with a risk of impact on
the tourism industry. In the Skagerrak, the energy areas are located further out from the coast
but, on the other hand, include large areas in the marine area.
The marine spatial plan for the Skagerrak/Kattegat guides potential energy extraction of about 20
TWh per year, which would constitute an important addition of fossil-free electricity to parts of
western Sweden. The electricity production is only considered to be able to connect to bidding
zones 3 and 4. The potential impact on shipping in the Skagerrak/Kattegat is estimated to be
relatively small, both for Swedish and international shipping. The plan indicates that safety
distances should be established when designing and permitting energy areas in order to minimise
collision risks.
Energy areas were adjusted according to the planning consultation taking into account national
interest claims for commercial fishing and fishing operations. Overall, the impact on commercial
fishing of the energy areas in the marine spatial plan for the Skagerrak/Kattegat is considered to
have a potential major impact on commercial fishing in the plan area, primarily in the case of
northern shrimp fishing, as well as bottom trawling for Norway lobster and fish. This includes the
effects of areas with licensed wind farms. The impact on commercial fishing can also have
second-round effects on value chains, self-processing, the processing industry, affected landing
ports and municipal interests.
Environmental objectives and the EU Marine Strategy for the Marine Environment
Directive
The marine spatial plans’ guidance is considered to make both positive and negative
contributions to Sweden’s national environmental objectives. The environmental quality objectives
where the plan has the greatest positive effect are "Limited climate impact". By creating the
conditions for an increased establishment of offshore wind energy in the Swedish territorial sea
and Swedish exclusive economic zone, there is potential to replace fossil energy production and,
in the long term, fossil fuels with an alternative that does not generate greenhouse gases. The
environmental quality objectives where the plan has the greatest negative effect are Sea in
balance and living coast and archipelago, A rich plant and animal life, and Good built
environment. Offshore wind affects marine nature environments both during construction and the
operational phase, which risks negatively affecting ecosystems and threatening biodiversity, such
as birds and marine mammals. The landscape is also affected by offshore wind energy, as well
as cultural environments and areas that are important for recreation. For the environmental
quality objectives Fresh air and Non-toxic environment, marine spatial plans have a marginal
effect in that guidance on energy use can affect local emissions, both positively and possibly
negatively as driving distances change. The marine spatial plans’ guidance on sand extraction
can lead to local impacts on the marine environment, and lead to the dispersion of pollutants from
sediments.
The marine spatial plans are assessed in relation to the Swedish Marine Environment Regulation
and the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive to be able to affect the descriptors for
biodiversity (seabirds, marine mammals), alien species, seabed integrity, hydrographic conditions
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and underwater noise. It is possible to limit the impact on the marine environment by introducing
conditions and consideration measures, but there are several uncertainties linked to the extensive
deployment of offshore wind energy. Uncertainties include potential risks of hydrographical
changes and consequential effects, effects on ice formation, outcomes of consideration measures
and opportunities for coexistence.
Relation of the marine spatial plans to the National Strategy for Sustainable Regional
Development throughout the country 2021 – 2030 and its priorities:
Equal opportunities for housing, work and welfare throughout the country:
• High quality of life with good and attractive habitats - By guiding about areas for use
recreation and cultural environment, as well as consideration and adaptation for nature
and cultural landscapes, the marine spatial plan affects the strategy's priority related to
promoting nature and cultural landscapes, stay in nature, the right of public access and
outdoor life.
• Good spatial planning - Through the plan's guidance on the most suitable use and
particular consideration, marine spatial plans contribute to a long-term and balanced
balance between different societal interests. Thus, the marine spatial plans contribute to
the strategy's priority of promoting a sustainable social structure, reduced climate impact,
conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services in a changing climate, and that the
interests of total defence are taken into account.
Innovation and renewal as well as entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship across the
country:
• A competitive, circular and bio-based, climate and environmental sustainable economy -
The plan's guidance on energy in two of the marine spatial plans contributes to the
strategy's priority on the deployment, production and use of renewable energy that is
important for regional energy supply and sustainable regional development.
• The plan’s guidance on the use of commercial fishing contributes to the same priority by
taking into account the conditions for commercial fishing.
Accessibility throughout the country through digital communication and the transport
system
• Accessibility through sustainable transport systems - The plan's guidance on shipping and
other uses contributes to the priority through maritime transport supply that is significant
for people and businesses across the country. The priority also highlights the importance
of coordination between activities and transport infrastructure at local, regional and
national level.
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7. References and lists
References
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Fredriksson. 2024. Hydrographic effects in Swedish waters of future offshore wind energy
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Energimyndigheten. 2023. Förslag på lämpliga energiutvinningsområden i havsplanerna. ER
2023:12.
Hansson, Per. 2019. Koncentrationer av hotade termikflyttande fåglar i Fennoskandia. Vox
Natura. ARCUM - Arctic research centre at Umeå university.
Havs- och vattenmyndigheten. 2012. Tillämpning av ekosystemansatsen i havsplaneringen.
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naturvård och vattenbruk. 2023:2.
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Klimat- och näringslivsdepartementet. 2024. Beslut i ärenden enligt lagen om svensk ekonomisk
zon för att uppföra, driva och avveckla vindkraftsparker KN2023/04163, KN2023/00942,
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KN2023/00909.
Länsstyrelsen i Skåne län. 2005. Bevarandeplan för Natura 2000-område Falsterbo-Foteviken.
Länsstyrelserna. 2024. Planeringsunderlag för marina kulturmiljövärden i den nationella
havsplaneringen - Nationell sammanställning av regleringsbrevsuppdrag RB202:3B4.
154
Naturvårdsverket. 2006. Inventering av marina naturtyper på utsjöbankar. 5576.
Odell, Anders, Anders Bernland, Gunnar Eriksson, Per Grahn, Tomas Mårtensson, Lars Norin,
Mari Olsén, och Beatrice Reichel. 2022. Möjligheter till samexistens mellan
Försvarsmaktens verksamhet och utbyggd vindkraft. FOI-R--5293--SE.
Rantanen, Perttu, Jani Helminen, och Nature Resources Institute Finland. 2023. ”lliittiseuranta-
aineisto suomalaisten troolialusten kalastusalueista Itämerellä vuosien 2018-2022
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Regeringen. 2022b. Uppdrag om nya områden för energiutvinning i havsplanerna. 2022/00276.
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ekonomiska zon för att identifiera områden med potential för fossilfri energiproduktion och
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Sverige. 2017:05. Sveriges geologiska undersökning.
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Laws, regulations etc.
SFS 1964:822 Nature Conservation Act
SFS 1966:314. Continental Shelf Act.
SFS 1983:293. Enlargement and Closure of Public Navigation Channels and Public Ports Act
SFS 1988:950. Cultural environment law.
SFS 1992:1140. Act on the Exclusive Economic Zone of Sweden.
SFS 1998:808. Environmental Code.
SFS 1998:896. Ordinance on the management of land and water areas.
SFS 2010:900. Planning and Building Act.
SFS 2015:400. Marine spatial Planning Ordinance.
SFS 2017:1272. Act on Swedish Maritime Territory and Maritime Zones.
Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of nature habitats and of wild
fauna and flora
Directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2009 on
the conservation of wild birds
Directive 2014/89/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 July 2014 establishing
a framework for marine spatial planning.
Government bill: Management of marine areas (bill 2013/14:186).
World Heritage Convention: UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Culture
and Nature Heritage, Paris, 16 November 1972
Government bill: The long-term direction of the energy policy (bill 2023/24:105).
List of geographical data sources
Background maps
In plan maps: Topographic Sitemap Viewing. Lantmäteriet.
https://www.lantmateriet.se/en/geodata/goods-products/product list/topographic-webmap-view/.
Maps created by the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management
Plan maps
Created by the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, HaV. Created: 2024.
Map figures created by the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management
Figure 1.2-1
Overview and figures. Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, HaV. 2019.
List of marine spatial plan maps
Map 1 Plan map for the Gulf of Bothnia ......................................................................................... 50
Map 2 Plan map for the Bothnian Bay marine area ....................................................................... 56
Map 3 Plan map for the Northern Bothnian Sea and North Kvarken marine area ........................ 63
Map 4 Plan map for the South Bothnian Sea marine area ............................................................ 72
Map 5 Plan map for the Baltic Sea................................................................................................. 80
Map 6 Plan map for the North Baltic Sea and South Kvarken marine area .................................. 85
Map 7 Plan man for the Central Baltic Sea marine area ............................................................... 93
Map 8 Plan map for the Southeast Baltic Sea marine area ......................................................... 101
Map 9 Plan map for the South Baltic Sea marine area................................................................ 109
Map 10 Plan map for the the Southwest Baltic Sea and Öresund marine area .......................... 117
Map 11 Plan map for the Skagerrak/Kattegat .............................................................................. 123
Map 12 Plan for the Skagerrak marine area ................................................................................ 129
Map 13 Plan map for the Kattegat marine area ........................................................................... 139
List of figures
Figure 1.2-1 The three marine spatial planning areas ..................................................................... 2
Figure 1.2-2 Concepts, boundaries and planning responsibilities . ................................................. 5
Figure 1.3-1 The overall marine spatial planning process ............................................................ 10
Figure 1.4-1 The planning objectives ............................................................................................ 16
Figure 2.2-1 The marine spatial plans are divided into different types of areas. ........................... 21
Figure 2.4-1 Example of how coexistence can look like in the plan map ..................................... 40
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List of tables
Table 1 Area table Bothnian Bay ................................................................................................... 57
Table 2 Area table Northern Bothnian Sea och North Kvarken ..................................................... 64
Table 3 Area table Southern Bothnian Sea ................................................................................... 73
Table 4 Area table Northern Baltic Sea and South Kvarken ......................................................... 86
Table 5 Area table Central Baltic ................................................................................................... 94
Table 6 Area table Southeastern Baltic Sea ................................................................................ 102
Table 7 Area table Southern Baltic Sea ....................................................................................... 110
Table 8 Area table Southwestern Baltic Sea and Öresund ......................................................... 118
Table 9 Area table Skagerrak ...................................................................................................... 130
Table 10 Area table Kattegat........................................................................................................ 140
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